Yvonne Hébert, Jennifer Wen-Shya Lee, Rolande Parel and
Christine Racicot
University of Calgary
In the context of global migration in which English is the. language of wide communication, adolescent immigrants to. Western Canada. must learn this language as efficiently as possible while situating themselves in a new country. Learning this language is critical to their educational success as well as their ability to contribute fully to Canadian society. pressure to learn a second language as effectively as possible in a very short time is unique to immigration.
Identity formation in adolescence is central to the process of becoming an adult. Youth must situate themselves in a range of contexts and with a diversity of individuals and groups, reconstructing or modifying their sense of belonging. The process is acute for immigrant youth who must adapt to a new home, connect with unfamiliar others, and hone their sense of belonging, including attachments to a new country. These processes call upon immigrant youth to be strategic in solving problems of adaptation towards eventual educational success and integration into Canadian society as fully productive citizens.
The purpose of this paper is to determine what strategies are most successful for immigrant students who are learning to read in a second language and whether or not these strategies carry other into other types of cognitive and affective functioning. At issue here is an underlying strategic competence which may be manifested in different ways, according to the phenomena in question.
Two models compete to explain the reading processes of second language learners. One claims that higher level processes are the same for first and second language mature, fluent readers. Consistent with this position is the use of 'top-down' reading skills such as contextual guessing, in which reading comprehension follows from prior knowledge of meaning structures built up from the context, culture and text genre.
Th e other position maintains that limited control of a second language reduces the distinction between good and poor first language readers because it prevents them from transferring their good L I reading skills to the second language. In other words, L2 readers who focus too heavily on top-down strategies are likely to exp I erience reading comprehension problems in the second language. In order to override the alleged short-circuit, the alternative strategy, morphological analysis, is more feasible for second language readers. By becoming familiar with a few stems, prefixes and suffixes, students will, recognize the meanings of many words. One root or affix can often provide a student with a clue to the meaning of dozens of words.
Two types of identity strategies have been proposed: simplex and complex, the former being either assimilation to the host culture or maintenance of the culture of origin; and the latter consisting of creative new solutions drawing from both host and original cultures. However, this modem model fails to account for the multiple changes and positions of an individual on a daily basis. Culture, is considered to be a complex Whole, acquired as a totality, expressed in fixed social structures, in stereotypical patterns of thought, action and beliefs.
Emerging postmodern theories of alterity (otherness) move beyond cultural differences to give greater importance to the agency of the individual, in interaction with contexts and in mapping his/her own identity formation on the social environment. From this perspective, other cultural studies explore the interrelatedness of place and subject, Where spatiality is seen as cultural transformation, identities are mapped as presences and absences upon social and geographical spaces, just as identities are created as linguistic presences and absences.
Models of cultural identity as multiplicity are of interest to our purposes: the view. of identity as a dynamic continuous and contextualized process that is aimed at individual uniqueness; the interrelatedness of subject, others, place, and the mapping of identity on social environments; and the realization that this involves the negotiation of multiple identifications as well as multiple social, psychological and cultural dimensions.
Enrolled in secondary schools in a Western Canadian city, 58 participants speak first languages other than English; of these, twenty-six are male and thirty-two. are female. They come from 28 countries, with 55 % from East or South-east Asia (e.g., Hong-Kong, Taiwan, China, Vietnam). South Asian, countries contribute about 22 % come from South Asian; 9 % and 10% respectively come from the Middle East and Central/South America. respectively. More than half of them 56.7 %) have lived in Canada for four years or less. A smaller percentage of participants (15.5 %) have lived in. Canada for 5 to 9 years and 27.6 % have been in Canada, over 10 years. Participants of this study range from advanced ESL students to second generation Canadians who might be considered to be native speakers. However, since their first language is other than English and they speak their mother. tongue at home, they are correctly considered to be second language learners.
We bring together both quantitative and qualitative data to examine students' patterns of reading strategies, compare differences, in strategy use, and to identify successful strategy user in reading and in self-construction. .
Y2a) Swansea Vocabulary test;
Y2b) Secondary Level English Proficiency test;
Y2c) a verbal protocol;
Y2d) mini-interviews,
Y2e) a biography of learning and
Y1f) spatial maps.
These drawings allow the individual to produce themselves in time and place, to situate themselves as an agentive subject in interaction with contexts and mapping themselves upon their social and geographical environments.
Two strategies are of particular interest: contextual guessing and morphological analysis. The most proficient readers use both; other proficient readers use only one. In other cases, with non-strategic readers, neither strategy is used successful.
First, higher reading proficiency students (SLEP> 90) have more receptive vocabulary knowledge and have lived in Canada longer than lower reading proficiency students (SLEP<90).
Secondly, lower reading proficiency students are highly dependent on the strategic use of contextual, guessing for determining the meaning of an unfamiliar word, while higher reading proficiency students tend to, use both strategies of contextual guessing and morphological analysis.
Thirdly, higher reading proficiency female students are more successful in using both the strategies of cont extual guessing and morphological analysis than lower reading proficiency female students. However, there is no similar pattern within. the, male group.
When we examine the relationship of vocabulary size and residency in Canada and patterns of usi ng reading strategies for the higher reading proficiency group, there are no relationships. Why do some students at the same level of L2 reading pr oficiency use more AM strategies and others prefer contextual guessing? Is successful use of reading strategies related to other factors, such as personality, motivation, social-cultural background, or cognitive ,processing?
Our next step attempts to link individual students' patterns of reading strategy use to their spatial representations to uncover their underlying characteristics. Finding answers may shed light on the issue of possible links between students' strategic use in reading and strategies used to portray themselves, others, places and experiences.
Having completed all data sets in question, thirteen students are 100% success either in the use of contextual guessing or in the use of morphological analysis, as shown below in four patterns of success and one of non-success:
Profile 1: Born in Chile, this adolescent male (#44) has lived in Canada for 12 years. His scores are 99.8 in reading on the SLEP and 90 on the vocabulary test. Dying contextual guessing once unsuccessfully(0/1), he succeeds three out of three tries with morphological analysis (3/3). In his biography of learning, he writes,
"What I like about learning is that I find new ways of doing things in my daily life, I find that what I dislike about learning is the conformity. When I go about learning, I try not to get much help from the teacher. I prefer to do independent work, but if I have a small problem, of course I'm going to ask a friend. This is especially if I like the topic/material. If I meet a problem as I'm learning, I just keep tying to find a solution for it based on the knowledge I've acquired to date."
His drawing represents two places in his school neighbourhood: a basketball court near school with the wall of church enclosing the sports space, and the sign of a pizza place where he and friends go at lunch time near to the school. Situated in the comer, off center, the single self is drawn as stick figure (with eyes, mouth, hair), throwing a basketball, putting self in the comer; no other humans are represented. Using an icon, the pizza place is represented only by the sip 'deep, deep, deep, deep dish pizza'. The spaces are frontal views, a border separates the small pizza sign in the top left comer, from the basketball court which takes up 80% of the page. The basketball court and wall of church are detailed, the use of shading and of many lines demonstrate attention to angle and an attempt to show perspective.
Situated in the present, this drawing is strongly marked by delimitation. Possibly evocative of garden Walls typical of Chilean homes as an image of the past, the overly large wall of the church emphasized by its numerous detailed lines seems to protect him from outside. The dominance of one large. space and the single self are consistent with his view of himself as an autonomous, well organized learner, as noted in his closing remarks in his biography of learning:
"Over the years I've become more independent... Now I just like being on my own. Learning is important to me so that I may succeed in life. I consider getting a good job, being organized with your life, and other things like. successes. I celebrate them by trying my best to accomplish them."
Profile 6: Originating in Algeria and having lived in, France, this female adolescent (#33) has lived in Canada (Halifax and Calgary) for five years. Both her reading and vocabulary scores are high (99 and 99.33 respectively). She successfully uses both strategies (CG-3/4; MA-5/5). In the mini-interview following the verbal protocol procedure, she states "I look in the dictionary but if I don't have one, I like, take the word off and just erase it or highlight it and look at the words around it and.. . . I put in a word that I know that would make sense... I can't predict unless I know.. Have some background information already.. Sometimes it's like the common expression or like, it is more and more definite. It's logical."
Five spaces are represented in her drawing: Aunt's garden and grandmother's garden; great grandmother's dining room, all three in France; the beach in Algeria; and a place in school in Calgary where she meets friends. Her name is large and centered on the page with thick lines flowing from it to, separate each space. The self and others arc stick figures or heads in water; both humans and spaces are labeled. The spaces and surroundings are presented from a frontal view of spaces. Some attention is given to perspective in the dining room space and stairs in aunt's garden; the other spaces and surroundings are two dimensional.
Attention is given. to detailing others who, share these spaces with her. Representing a strong attachment, her great grandmother is drawn in detail (from a side angle, seated, wearing eye glasses, a dress) while others are stick figures. Her spaces represent strong memories. of times spent with others, i.e., family members in France and Algeria, as well as her first meeting with friends in Calgary. Analytical and sensitive to experiences, she is grounded in both the past and the present, with more weight apparently given to the past in her construction-of herself, although she meets the same friends in the same school space on a daily basis in the present.
The learner displays a sensitivity to oth ers as well as a clear ability, to I analyze constituent parts of her life in which she is center-stage. She focuses on nature and relationships with others especially with her grandmother and extended family members. This . ability to be logical and yet to be sensitive to others is, reflected in her biography of learning,
"I like learning about living things... memorizing is one of my strengths.. If I like the material, I will go about teaming it very quickly. I will read and/or observe it until it is locked in, my head. I dislike, learning through interpretation or reflection as in Language Arts.. When I don't like, the material, I force myself to learn it the same way ... except that l would not be as disciplined and it could take some effort for me to concentrate. When I meet a problem while I'm learning, I get help, from people... and I solve with guidance from that person or thing who is helping.. I used to learning everything by memorization until I come to Canada. I've had to learn by understanding.. an easy method but still awkward... Distractions brought on my friends or my surroundings interfere with my learning... I don't want to send off the wrong message such as 'I'm fed up with you. Learning is important to me because it is what will form me in order to step through life. It is like a savings bond that will afford me great things. Success for me is a high mark in school, an outstanding achievement, or some sort of recognition in society."
Profile 9: Born in Vietnam, this young woman (#10) has lived in Canada for 12 years. Her reading score on the SLEP test is 95 and her vocabulary score is a low 79.33. She engages in contextual guessing, 14 times and succeeds only 5 times, less than could be expected by a random guesser. Morphological analysis is of little use to her (0/0). In the mini-interview after the verbal protocol, procedure, she interacts with the researcher to explain her approach:
Q: "the meanings for unknown words?
A: I don't use a strategy, I just guess what they mean.
Q: Just a random guess?
A: Yeah, But, I usually choose words to describe them what has to & with
the context.
Q: So, it's based on what you have already read?
A: Yeah."
Her non-analytic, experiential approach. to learning is echoed in her biography of learning where she focuses on practical problem solving, asking others for help, and trying to. cope with, parental pressure, while hoping, develop skills. She, writes,
"I've always liked math and science. In these subjects I learn to solve everyday problems. English is the hardest subject for me because I don't understand many of the words. If it's a, subject 1, like, I go about challenging myself. If it's something I dislike, . I I learning, I usually leave it alone. When I meet a problem, I ask a teacher or a friend to help me out. My parents interfere with my learning. My parents force me to succeed at what they want. Learning is important because if you want a job, you need to know the skills. Learning is a key to success and to succeed is the purpose of life."
In her drawing, five spaces are represente I d: the backyard, a beach in British Columbia, a mall, the school library, and her bedroom. Other than the central frame, the page is filled in with shading wherein the sketchy places are labeled and , identifiable. Giving at most an impression, the places overlap to some extent. None of these are separated by borders of any sort, explicitly or implicitly.
Centered in a purple oval bubble, reminiscent of a mirror, picture frame or pendant, the large self takes the form of a stereotypical figure with some features: smiling face, long black hair, bosomy triangular body shape, and inverted triangular skirt. Arrows point from this bubble to places surrounding it, but without. much precision or organization. Others in the family are represented only on the 'BC beach' area as stick figures. Vibrant and colourful, the drawing raises the possibility of a strongly emotional mind, with an experiential approach to life, focused on her stylized body, undergoing rapid change in adolescence, paying little attention to details in her surroundings or to problem solving.
The analysis of the representations of self, others and places, alongside the results of the reading results, provides valuable insight into the use of strategies for reading a second language among immigrant adolescents. This analysis however yields a much more complex and nuanced portrayal of each learner' and of types of learners.
Those learners who I are most adept at morphological analysis and are very proficient readers tend to focus on exterior spaces, demarcating these boldly and clearly, and to see themselves as isolates who rely largely on their own resources to solve their own problems. The self is symbolized by such learners as a stick figure or even reduced to a colour-coded icon. By comparison, those learners who are both proficient readers and proficient user of both strategies tend to represent themself and others in greater detail and as more fully human. The individual who is a non-proficient reader and ineffective strategist tends not to see others or s urrounding places in any depth or detail Moreover, this individual relies on others to assist. her with problem solving and to determine what counts as, success.
Thus, the general pattern is clear: it is the analytic and proficient reader, able to use both strategies successfully, i.e., to analyze with sensitivity to textual context, who is also the balanced person sensitive to detail and to others, able to engage successfully in both constituent analysis and interactive relationships with friends and family.
Returning to the debate on types of strategies in relationship to vocabulary knowledge, this data supports the bottoms-up model as it is morphological analysis which holds the key to improved reading proficiency in a second language, especially when used in combination with successful contextual guessing. Making textual meaning correctly requires both types of strategies and knowledge of when to use each one correctly.
This data support the more recent agentive models, with learners weaving in a multiplicity of formative and strategic elements from their surroundings, places and selves, as they see fit, revealing themselves and in the process, constructing themselves interactively in the here and now, as well as maintaining active links with the past and with former places. At the heart of the identity formation process and in the minds of these Canadian immigrant youth is the interrelatedness of place, self, others, and learning as transformations to be produced strategically, in presences and absences, simultaneously real, imagined and symbolic.
Making meaning of text, self and life requires more than one perspective and more than one type of. strategy, but especially die ability to move effectively from one to another as need be. This metacognitive balance between rationality and affectivity appears to be key to identity formation. and suggests that forming new attachments to home and country depend. crucially on how immigrant youth learn to read in the unknown language of their new surroundings.
For language teachers, this suggests that the task is not only concrete in the mundane everyday moments of assisting students to learn the target language, but also a. form of apprenticeship in thinking. Teachers play a significant role in the development of students' attribution s. Teaching practices become a real, symbolic and real accompaniment in the process of identity. formation that is central to adolescence and to immigration, doubly so when these come together as forms of problem solving, significantly central to many life phenomena.
For educational policy, this, analysis suggests that schooling of adolescents should focus on the centrality of identity formation,. emphasizing the here-and-now of their existence, while providing inclusive comfort and links to the past. Social and educational policies must take into consideration the range of strategic competence that adolescents have developed as part of the process, of integration into Canadian society. Specific training in strategy use must be provided, as key to problem solving for life long learning and for the production of active, interrelated and well-balanced human beings as, valuable Canadian citizens.
In, this light, we must not only rethink ESL learning, in terms of pedagogy for strategic learning. to be developed in schools, pre-service teacher education and professional development. We must also situate this learning within a broader process of construction of self and of society in a globalized world.