1. What is differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour (DRA), and how is it used?
2. What is differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviour (DRI) and how is it different from DRA?
3. What is functional communication training (FCT)?
4. What is differential reinforcement of other behaviour (DRO), and how is it used?
5. What is differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL)?
6. Describe the variations of DRL and explain how it differs from an FI schedule of reinforcement.
How can differential reinforcement decrease ________ behaviour?
(Reagan et al., 2013)
- participants drove assigned vehicles that were outfitted with “traffic safety system” that ________ driving behaviour
- GPS used to monitor speed in real-time
- automated ________ (AF): visual and auditory/vocal warnings
• green=not speeding
• yellow=1-9 mph over
• red=10+ mph over
- ________ incentive (MI): drivers promised $25 bonus
• bonus ________ by 3¢ for every 6-second period that driver exceeded speed limit by 5-8 mph
• bonus declined by 6¢ for 9+ mph violation
• visual display showed bonus amounts, but only when ignition was off
- design included reversal (return-to-baseline), and control group
• week 1: baseline
- retained only habitual speeders: drivers who exceeded speed limit at least 30% of the time
• week 2: AF, MI, and $25 bonus activated
- speeding ________
- drivers exceeded speed limit only 17% of the time
- almost no 9+ mph violations
• week 3:
- some drivers received AF but no MI: speeding _________
- some drivers received MI but no AF: speeding remained at lower levels
• week 4: return to baseline; no AF or MI
- speeding behaviour increased back to week 1 levels
- monetary incentives can ______ speeding behaviour
- application: incentive-based discounts on insurance premiums
e.g., usage-based insurance like TD MyAdvantage and Aviva Journey offer discounts on insurance premiums of up to 25% for good driving (but require using an app to monitor driving)
- definition: a procedure in which an undesirable behaviour is no longer reinforced (undergoes extinction) and a desirable ___________ behaviour is reinforced
- undesirable behaviour will decrease and the desirable behaviour will increase
- alternative behaviour is not necessarily related to undesirable one; may be quite _________
e.g., putting a plastic brick into a bucket as an alternative to screaming
Vollmer et al. (1999):
- Kyle, a 4-year-old boy with severe developmental disabilities
- during training sessions (e.g., doing puzzles), he was aggressive and would try to hit, scratch, or kick the therapist (target aberrant behaviour)
- functional analysis revealed ______ from training provided negative reinforcement
- behavioural treatment program:
• aggressive behaviours were _______
• compliance defined as “completion of the requested task...independently (no prompts) or following a verbal or gestural prompt” (p. 12)
• compliance reinforced with 30-second break from training
• this subtype is called DNRA: differential negative reinforcement of alternative behaviour
- results: inappropriate behaviours decreased;appropriate behaviours increased
1. select alternative behaviour that:
- requires equal or less ______ than the problem behaviour
- is already in the learner’s __________, if possible
- is likely to be reinforced in the learner’s natural environment
2. select reinforcement that:
- is ______; use same reinforcer that maintains the problem behaviour, if possible
e.g., if problem behaviour is outburst that leads to escape from schoolwork, then use time away from schoolwork as reinforcement for alternative behaviour
- can be delivered immediately and consistently; then switch from continuous to ____________ schedule of reinforcement (thinning)
- definition: a procedure in which an undesirable behaviour is extinguished, and a behaviour that is __________ to do at the same time as the undesirable behaviour is reinforced
- examples of incompatible behaviours:
• __________ classroom behaviour vs. completing tasks
• crying and squirming in dentist’s chair vs. being quiet and holding still
• arriving late to class vs. being on time for class
Donnelly and Olczak (1990):
- 38-year-old nonverbal male with severe intellectual disability; mental age of 17 months
- target behaviour: ____ (ingestion of nonfood/nonnutritive substances) for cigarette butts
- behavioural treatment program: DRI
• cigarette butts made out of _____ (“bogus butts”) were used, in case they were actually consumed
• measured latency to pick up (not consume) a “bogus butt”
• patient took part of a stick of sugarless mint gum (followed by 5 cc of sweetened decaffeinated coffee, which was a known reinforcer)
- results:
• ____ latency increased; pica often did not occur
• some generalization after treatment ended
- definition: subtype of DRA, in which the alternative behaviour is a _____________ response
- also called differential reinforcement of communication, or DRC
- can also be considered a subtype called reinforcement of functionally __________ behaviour: an acceptable behaviour receives the same consequences as an undesirable behaviour
Durand and Carr (1991):
- Tim, a 12-year-old with moderate intellectual impairment
- was easily frustrated, and showed ___________ behaviours: would cry, scream, and hit himself
- functional analysis showed that escape from training was reinforcing
- behavioural treatment program: FCT
• trainers taught Tim to solicit attention and __________ on tasks
e.g., assistance phrases included “Help me” or “I don’t understand”
• trainers used verbal and modeling prompts, which were faded
- results:
• challenging behaviours extinguished
• Tim was able to ask for assistance without _______
• Tim’s behaviour generalized to new situations and was maintained over time
- definition: a procedure in which an undesirable behaviour undergoes extinction, and a reinforcer is delivered after a period of time in which the behaviour does not occur
- note: “other” behaviour is not the same as “_________” behaviour
- also called differential reinforcement of ____ responding or differential reinforcement of the ________ of behaviour
- DRO has been applied to:
• __________ biting
• thumb-sucking
• disruptive and self-injurious behaviours
Lindberg et al. (1999):
- Bridget, a 50-year-old woman with profound intellectual disability
- self-injurious behaviours (SIBs): head banging and body hitting
- functional analysis determined the reinforcer was social attention
- behavioural treatment program:
• Bridget received brief ______ attention at the end of an interval without SIBs
• interval varied randomly around a mean: initially was 15 seconds, but eventually reached 300 seconds
- results:
• SIBs declined to nearly zero
DRO variations:
• ______________ DRO: reinforcer delivered if problem behaviour is absent during the entire interval
• _________ DRO: reinforcer delivered if problem behaviour is absent at the end of the interval
• time periods may be fixed or variable
• can also be based on permanent-product data
e.g., student gets a sticker on homework that has no doodles on it
1. perform __________ assessment to determine the reinforcer for problem behaviour
2. choose _____________ for DRO
- use instructions to explain the new contingency
3. choose ______ of initial DRO time interval
- should be based on baseline data (slightly less than the mean interresponse time, IRT)
- in general, the more frequent the behaviour, the shorter the interval
4. extinguish problem behaviour; _________ omission intervals
5. if problem behaviour occurs before the end of the interval (whole-interval DRO), _____ time interval
6. increase the interval ______
DRO Considerations:
• extinction may lead to extinction-induced __________, which is also undesirable
e.g., student reinforced for not getting out of his seat, but begins throwing spitballs
• for learners with a limited behavioural repertoire, DRO can create a “_________ ______” which may end up being filled with the (undesirable) target behaviour
• DRA or DRI may be better suited to these situations
(Ferster & Skinner, 1957)
- definition: a procedure in which a _____ rate of a behaviour is reinforced to decrease the rate of that behaviour; extinction applied when the rate of behaviour exceeds criterion for reinforcement
- used when goal is to reduce, not eliminate, the behaviour
- DRL has been applied to:
• sleeping
• eating too quickly
• asking questions in _____
Deitz and Repp (1973):
- 11-year-old boy with developmental disability
- chosen by his teacher as the most disruptive in the class
- target behaviour: _________, which included talking without permission and singing
- behavioural treatment program: A-B-A design
• phase 1 baseline: average of 0.11 talk-outs per minute (measured during a 50-minute session, once per day)
• phase 2 DRL: if there were 3 or fewer talk-outs in a session, reinforcement of 5 minutes of free ____ time was allowed
• phase 3 return to baseline
- results:
• in phase 2: average of 0.02 talk-outs per minute (0.03 in phase 3)
DRL variations:
• ____________ DRL: reinforcer delivered if target behaviour occurs fewer than a certain number of times during a session
e.g., dessert given if child gets up from the table fewer than 3 times during mealtime
- used to decrease behaviour (but not eliminate it)
• _________________ DRL: reinforcer delivered if a certain amount of time has elapsed since last target behaviour
e.g., child called on to answer in class only if it has been 10 minutes since they last raised their hand
- used to pace behaviour, spaced by a minimum length of time
• ________ DRL: session is divided into equal time intervals; reinforcer delivered if target behaviour occurred no more than once during each interval
e.g., used to reduce talk-outs: chocolate caramel given if no more than one response was made in a 5-minute interval (Deitz, 1977)
- used to pace behaviour, spaced by an average length of time
DRL vs. FI schedule:
• in spaced-responding DRL 60", a reinforcer is delivered after a response if at least 60 seconds has elapsed since the previous ________
• in FI 60", a reinforcer is delivered after a response if at least 60 seconds has elapsed since the previous __________ was delivered
e.g., if a rat presses a bar every 10 seconds
• in spaced-responding DRL 60": no reinforcers are delivered (interval resets with each response)
• in FI 60": reinforcer is delivered every 60 seconds
1. decide whether DRL is ___________: behaviour should be reduced but not eliminated
2. determine desired rate of behaviour
3. choose between full-session or spaced-responding DRL
4. tell client the criterion for reinforcement
5. provide client with ________/data on their behaviour