One of the basic questions for sociologists is who gets access to
interesting jobs, high incomes, high-status professions, and top
decision making positions in organizations. Asking this and other
questions about inequality guided our discussion of labour market
trends, in Unit 3. Unit 4 tries to provide more comprehensive
answers to these questions by explaining how labour markets operate
to create and perpetuate inequalities. We begin by considering what
constitutes a "good job", the crucial resource that seems
to be in chronically short supply in the labour market. This prompts
analyses of the labour market structures and processes which open the
doors leading to good jobs for some groups in society, while closing
these doors for others. The Unit considers different theories of how
labour markets operate: human capital theory, theories of social
mobility and status attainment, and labour market segmentation
theory. The reading assignment assesses how adequately each accounts
for the emergence and persistence of inequalities. Particular
attention is focused on how specific groups -- namely women, native
Canadian, persons with disabilities, and visible minorities --
historically have been disadvantaged in the labour market.
After completing this unit, students should be able to:
- Define the major differences between good and bad jobs.
- Outline the human capital model of the labour market, comparing
and contrasting it with other theoretical perspectives, particularly
labour market segmentation theory.
- Evaluate the role of education in determining an individual's
success in the labour market.
- Assess the insights derived from status attainment and social
mobility research about how labour markets operate.
- Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of labour market
segmentation theory.
- Document the kinds of discrimination which specific groups
(e.g., visible minorities, disabled individuals, aboriginal persons,
and women) have faced in the Canadian labour market.
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets."
Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the
Sociology of Work and Industry:
- 4.1 Agnes Calliste, "Sleeping car porters in Canada: an
ethnically submerged labour market."
- 4.2 Jeffrey G. Reitz, "Less racial discrimination in
Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons
with Britain."
- 4.3 Shona McKay, "Ready, willing and able."
- 4.4 James B. Waldram, "Native employment and hydroelectric
development in Northern Manitoba."
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As you read, keep the following questions in mind:
- What are the various approaches taken by sociologists to examine
the inequalities created in the labour market?
- How does this section help to enlarge your view of what defines
a "good" job?
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour market,." pages
108-117.
To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your
own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to
compare related terms, as indicated.
- labour market
- extrinsic versus intrinsic job rewards
- gender-based wage gap
- income inequality and income distribution
- fringe benefits
- socioeconomic status
- Blishen scores
When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding
of the material by answering the following study questions.
- Define the concept of a labour market, and identity other
institutions and organizations that interact with it.
- Document the major differences in occupational rewards, in terms
of income and fringe benefits.
- Discuss the evidence on the gender-based wage gap presented in
Figure 4.1 on page 111 of the textbook.
- Assess the long-term pattern of income inequality in Canada.
- Explain how Blishen scores measure socioeconomic status.
- Outline the alternative measures for socioeconomic status.
We began pursuing the question of employment differences in Unit 2 by
using the rather crude distinction between good jobs and bad jobs.
Now you have become familiar with many labour market trends that
document differences in employment, and also have an understanding of
analytic concepts used (such as class, nonstandard jobs,
socio-economic status) to analyze these distinctions. To help you
assess and assimilate this information, it would be timely to pull
together these pieces of evidence and concepts into your own
comprehensive definition of good jobs and bad jobs. Try to make your
distinctions between these two general categories of jobs as detailed
and thorough as possible.
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As you read, keep the following question in mind:
- What role does education play in determining a person's success
in the labour market?
- What other factors determine who gets the better jobs?
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages
117-127.
To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your
own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to
compare related terms, as indicated.
- human capital theory
- occupational choice
- equality of opportunity
- educational aspirations versus educational attainment
- cultural capital
- aspirations versus occupational attainment
- social mobility versus occupational mobility
- intragenerational mobility versus intergenerational
mobility
- structural mobility versus circulatory mobility
- open society versus closed society
- meritocracy
- status attainment
When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding
of the material by answering the following study questions.
- Summarize the basic arguments of human capital theory.
- Explain how a person's social class origins influence her or his
educational aspirations and how, in turn, these aspirations are
related to educational attainment.
- Explain how higher educational and occupational aspirations tend
to translate into higher occupational attainment.
- Discuss what the concept of cultural capital tells us about the
reproduction of class inequalities in society.
- Evaluate to what extent Canada is an open or a closed society,
in terms of the degree of social mobility that occurs.
- Discuss how status attainment research provides evidence both
for and against a human capital model of the labour market.
Take each of the theoretical perspectives presented in this Section
and identify its key argument about who gets ahead. Now draw on your
own social circles to compare and contrast the usefulness of each
perspective in accounting for inequalities in Canadian society.
Which model best accounts for how your acquaintances, friends and
family members achieved their present educational or occupational
status? Would a combination of some of these theories provide a
fuller analysis?
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As you read, keep the following questions in mind:
- How are labour markets organized, or "structured", to
create good jobs with restricted access?
- How do various kinds of secondary labour market segments, as
described in the readings, contribute to social inequality?
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages
127-134.
Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the
Sociology of Work and Industry:
- 4.1 Agnes Calliste, "Sleeping car porters in Canada: an
ethnically submerged labour market."
To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your
own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to
compare related terms, as indicated.
- labour market segmentation perspective
- secondary labour market versus primary labour market
- dual economy model
- core sector versus periphery sector
- independent versus subordinate employment in the primary
sector
- job ghettos
- internal labour market
- labour market shelters
- professions
- market closure
- split labour market theory
- occupational ethnic segregation
When you have completed the assigned readings, test your
understanding of the material by answering the following study
questions.
- Explain how the labour market segmentation perspective rejects
the core assumptions of human capital theory.
- Discuss the dual economy model's analysis of why some industries
offer good employment conditions and high wages.
- Describe how Reiter's study of Burger King (pages 130-131 of the
textbook) illustrates the dual economy model's concept of employment
in a secondary labour market.
- Define an internal labour market and give three major examples.
- Document the various ways professions create and maintain
sheltered labour markets for their members.
- Outline Calliste's analysis, in her article on black sleeping
car porters, of how race (or ethnicity) is used as a basis for
building inequality into the railways' systems of employment.
Using the studies by Reiter, reported in the textbook on pages 130 to
131, and Calliste (in her article in Work in Canada) as
models, pick an occupation or a workplace you are familiar with and
imagine conducting a similar study. What theoretical concepts and
insights from the readings in this section would be good analytic
tools? Does the case you selected lend further support to a labour
market segmentation model of how the labour market operates?
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As you read, keep the following questions in mind:
- How significant a problem is labour market discrimination in
Canada?
- What government and employer policies could reduce or eliminate
the barriers faced by the visible minorities, the disabled, and
native people?
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages
134-138.
Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the
Sociology of Work and Industry:
- 4.2 Jeffrey G. Reitz, "Less racial discrimination in
Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons
with Britain."
- 4.3 Shona McKay, "Ready, willing and able."
- 4.4 James B. Waldram, "Native employment and hydroelectric
development in Northern Manitoba."
To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your
own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to
compare related terms, as indicated.
structural labour market barriers
marginal work world
forms of employer discrimination
student labour market
racial discrimination
racial conflict
employment equity policies
discriminatory behaviour versus discriminatory attitudes
integrating employees with disabilities
costs versus benefits of development projects for native
Canadians
native employment as tokenism
When you have completed the assigned readings, test your
understanding of the material by answering the following study
questions.
- Describe how geography can create barriers to mobility out of
secondary labour market segments.
- Explain how age, gender, disability, or race can be the basis
for excluding individuals with these characteristics from primary
labour markets.
- Assessing the evidence presented in the textbook on pages 137 to
138 and in Reitz's article in Work in Canada, .what is the
extent of racial discrimination in Canada?
- Discuss why Reitz, in his article in Work in Canada,
argues that there is less racial conflict in Canada compared with
Britain.
- Identify the most effective ways of integrating disabled
employees into the workplace, based on McKay's discussion in her
article in Work in Canada.
- Analyze the overall impact of development projects on native
employment, using the material presented by Waldron in his article in
Work in Canada.
What is your assessment of the extent of discrimination in your local
labour market. Which groups are discriminated against, and how does
this discrimination occur? Do you see any way of constructively
addressing this problem?
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As you read, keep the following questions in mind:
- How does a labour market segmentation perspective contribute to
our understanding of the changing patterns of inequality in
society?
Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society:
- Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages
139-142.
To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your
own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to
compare related terms, as indicated.
- labour market segmentation and class conflict
- initial proletarianization versus homogenization of labour
versus segmentation of labour
- shrinking middle class
- upskilling versus deskilling
- strengths versus weaknesses of labour market segmentation
models
When you have completed the assigned readings, test your
understanding of the material by answering the following study
questions.
- Outline Gordon, Edwards and Reich's (on page 139 of the textbook)
thesis regarding the historical decline of class conflict in the
United States.
- Identify the major new trends in labour market segmentation
found in Canada, and relate these to discussions in earlier Units.
- Itemize the key criticisms of labour market segmentation theory.
- Assess the strengths of labour market segmentation theory in
comparison to human capital theory.
Make a list of the major theoretical perspectives presented in this
Unit on a page, leaving a half-dozen blank lines under each theory.
Now make your own evaluation of each, based on how well you think it
contributes to your understanding of how labour market structures and
processes create social inequality. Using these criteria, list under
each theory one main strength and one main weakness. Do you see
useful ways of combining elements of these theories?
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