SOC 366: PEOPLE IN INDUSTRY Course Study Guide _ Graham S. Lowe December 1995 NOTE: This copyrighted material is for the use of students registered in SOC 366:B1 (winter 1995) for personal study purposes only. Course Overview This course is about work: how it developed into its present forms; how it is organized; how individuals experience it; and the social relationships and institutional frameworks so essential for it to occur. The course provides students with a deeper understanding of the dynamics of change and conti- nuity, the basis for cooperation and conflict, and the varieties of human experiences in the world of work. While the focus of the course is on paid work in the formal economy, students also are introduced briefly to other forms of work. By critically examining key concepts, theories and research findings in the sociology of work and industry, the course addresses questions such as: What makes a job satisfying? How are work values changing in the 1990s? Has 20th century capitalist development, particularly in Canada, deskilled and degraded work, or is the opposite true? What deter- mines who gets "good jobs" and who gets "bad jobs", or no job at all? What impact is automation having on the workplace? How can greater equality of employment opportunities and rewards be achieved for women, visible minorities, native people and the disabled? Is democracy possible in the workplace? How can we improve the quality of working life? What are the sources of conflict and cooperation between workers and managers? Are unions obsolete? What are the best ways to "balance" work and family? What major forces will shape the future of work? Clearly, these questions are of vital importance to the daily working lives of Canadians. They also touch upon issues central to the discipline of sociology and, in many cases, they address current debates about the direction of Canadian public policy. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 0 Course Objectives The main objectives of SOC 366 are to: 1) inform students about contemporary trends in work and industry; 2) provide critical skills useful for analyzing the causes and consequences of these trends within their broader social and historical contexts; and 3) introduce students to the theories and empirical research findings in the diverse lit- erature on work and industry. Upon completion of SOC 366, students should be able to do the following: 1. Identify the major work-related trends in Canada today, and assess how these trends have changed over time. 2. Compare and contrast key theoretical perspec- tives about capitalist industrialization, labour markets, work organizations, industrial relations, technology, individuals' work experiences, and other major topics central to the sociological study of work and industry. 3. Critically evaluate the usefulness of theories and concepts in the sociology of work and industry in light of available research findings and other empirical evidence. 4. Describe the dynamic interplay between individu- als, on one hand, and institutions or organizations, on the other, that continually shapes and reshapes work. Appreciate the importance of combining these "micro" and "macro" perspectives into a comprehen- sive analysis of work. 5. Illustrate how themes central to a sociological perspective -- change, power, inequality, conflict -- are expressed in work settings. 6. Assess the implications of major work and indus- trial trends for Canadian society, and more specifically for public policy. Organization of this Study Guide This study guide is designed to assist students work their way through the course readings. The Guide is organized into 9 Units which incorporate the 10 chapters from the textbook with the nine parts in the reader. These 9 units follow the lecture out- line. Each unit is broken down into manageable sections, with a reading selection, a list of specific learn- ing objectives, questions to keep in mind as you read, key concepts, study questions to go over after Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 1 you have completed the reading, and a practice exercise that you could write out or discuss in the Newsgroup or with Professor Lowe or Deana Hall, the teaching assistant. By following this Study Guide, you will master the course material and gain lasting insights about the changing world of work. Unit 1 Unit 1: Industrialization and Capitalism Overview We launch our sociological analysis of work by looking back into the past. The study of work is concerned with the industrial context in which work is performed. We thus need to closely examine the transformation of industrial structures over time. What Unit 1 does, then, is sketch the broad contours of the capitalist industrialization process. It was this set of economic changes that had -- and con- tinues to have, as we shall see in Unit 2 -- a huge impact on the work performed by women and men. We trace how the industrial revolution took root first in Europe. We then contrast this European pattern of industrialization to that found in colonial Canada. The Unit also introduces the main features of 20th century corporate capitalism, which created many of the labour market structures, organizational forms and management approaches still found today. The Unit emphasizes the implications of successive changes in industry for the form, content and social relations of work. Unit Objectives By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to: 1. Outline the key ingredients of the capitalist industrialization process. 2. Identify major differences in this process as it occurred in Europe and in Canada. 3. Discuss the nature of work in pre-capitalist and early capitalist societies. 4. Assess the impact of industrial development on employment relations, labour markets and skills. 5. Account for how and why the development of capi- talist industry was experienced differently depending on a person's gender, race or ethnicity. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 2 6. Analyze how the rise of corporate capitalism brought in its wake new forms of work organization, divisions of labour and managerial techniques. Readings (64 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Introduction. Chapter 1, "Industrialization and the rise of capitalism." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 1.1 Craig Heron, "The crisis of the craftsman: Hamilton metal workers in the early twentieth century." 1.2 Marjorie Griffin Cohen, "Capitalist devel- opment, industrialization, and women's work." 1.3 Graham S. Lowe, "Corporate capitalism and the administrative revolution." Section 1: The Rise of Industrial Capitalism Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What changes are associated with the transition from a feudal, pre-capitalist society to a capital- ist, market-based society? 2. What are the defining characteristics of work under industrial capitalism? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Introduction. Chapter 1, "Industrialization and the rise of capitalism," pages 1-15. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: Editors' Introduction to Part 1, pages 1-3. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 3 related terms, as indicated.  work  agency-structure debate  macro and micro levels of analysis  industrialization versus capitalist development  division of labour  mercantile (commercial) capitalism versus industrial capitalism  feudal society  putting out system  Luddites  the great transformation Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Exlpain how a sociological perspective on work and industry differs from other ways of looking at these topics. 2. Identify the dominant theoretical concerns in the sociological study of work and industry. 3. Define the main differences between industrial- ization and capitalism. 4. Describe work in a feudal society. 5. Outline how industrial capitalism changed pro- duction systems, work relations and working conditions as it emerged in the 18th century. 6. Explain why Karl Polanyi called the broader set of changes associated with the rise of capitalism "the great transformation". Practice Exercise Pick some of the most far-reaching changes associ- ated with the rise of industrial capitalism described in the readings as your "measuring stick." Now try to identify several work-related changes today that could be placed in the same category in terms of the scope and significance of their impact. What is there about the these changes that would lead the people who directly experience them to use a term like "revolutionary"? Section 2: Women and Industrialization Thought Question Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 4 As you read, keep the following question in mind: How did the changes associated with the shift from an pre-industrial economy to industrial capitalism affect women and men differently, especially in terms of their work? Reading Assignments Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 1.2 Marjorie Griffin Cohen, "Capitalist devel- opment, industrialization, and women's work." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  pre-industrial household (family) economy  cottage and craft production versus industrial production  role of housewife  division of labour by gender  paid versus unpaid (waged) labour  U-shaped curve of women's employment  public versus private spheres  market Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading by Marjorie Griffin Cohen, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study ques- tions. 1. Outline how the 19th century view of the impact of industrialization on women's work been revised by more recent historical research. 2. Assess the problems associated with generalizing from women's experiences in Britain's textile industry to other industries. 3. Document women's role in the pre-industrial household, and assess how industrialization trans- formed this role. 4. Describe how industrialization created a more rigid gendered division of labour. 5. Assess how early industrialization in colonial Canada affected women's work differently that Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 5 industrialization in Britain. Practice Exercise Based on your own experiences, observations and knowledge, try to identify ways in which current industrialization trends (industrial "restructur- ing", the globalization of the economy, new technologies, flexible forms of work) are affecting: (a) women's economic roles; and (b) the distinction between the public sphere of employment and the private sphere of family and household. Section 3: Canada's Industrialization Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How did the onslaught of industrialization transform the lives of skilled male craftsworkers? 2) How did Canada's status as a colony and resource hinterland shape the emergence of an industrial economy? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Introduction. Chapter 1, "Industrialization and the rise of capitalism," pages 15-22. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 1.1 Craig Heron, "The crisis of the craftsman: Hamilton metal workers in the early twentieth century." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  late industrializing nation  pre-market economy  deindustrialization  craft work  skill  crisis of the craftsmen Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 6  artisanal culture  systematic management versus scientific management  working class  labour market discrimination  ethnic business enclaves Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe the main features of work in pre- industrial Canada. 2. Identify the early signs of industrialization in Canada, indicating how was work beginning to be transformed. 3. Document how Canada's early resource industries helped to create a wage-labour market. 4. Assess the extent to which racial and ethnic inequalities became a feature of Canada's early wage-labour market. 5. Explain how, according to Craig Heron's study of Hamilton metal workers, industrialization lead to the destruction of their craft. 6. Outline Heron's analysis of how Hamilton's metal workers resisted the march of industrialization. Practice Exercise Using your own community as an informal case-study (either where you now live, or where you spent most of your time growing up), sketch out its pattern of industrialization. Did the community pass through different phases, each characterized by changes in local industry, the labour market, and working con- ditions. In turn, how did these changes affect living conditions? Section 4: Corporate Capitalism Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) Why did management become so preoccupied with control, efficiency, and work rationalization in the early twentieth century? 2) What were the likely effects of the new manage- Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 7 rial strategies on workers and their immediate work environment? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Introduction. Chapter 1, "Industrialization and the rise of capitalism," pages 22-25. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 1.3 Graham S. Lowe, "Corporate capitalism and the administrative revolution." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  concentration of production  corporate capitalism  administrative revolution  efficiency  welfare work  scientific management  managerial control  clerical feminization  bureaucracy  rationalization  the labour problem Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline how the early twentieth century was the era of corporate capitalism in Canada. 2. Describe the two main labour force changes asso- ciated with the administrative revolution. 3. Discuss Lowe's claim, on page 25 of his chapter in Work in Canada, that "Control was the driving force behind the administrative revolution." 4. Explain what it mean to say that clerical work was feminized. 5. Illustrate how managers emerged after 1900 as a powerful new professional class. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 8 6. Compare and contrast scientific management and welfare work as management strategies for regulating workers' behaviour. Practice Exercise What is your impression of a typical office today, based on your own observations, your experiences as a worker, or through your role as a client or cus- tomer? How does this image fit the model of the "modern" office outlined by Lowe in his analysis of the administrative revolution? Can you identify significant changes? What in particular has not changed, in your view? Unit 2 Unit 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Capitalism Overview The complex interplay of forces that propelled the industrialization process left virtually no sphere of life untouched. The "great transformation", described in Unit 1, not only involved the growth of factories. Equally important were changes in the class structure, political systems, social rela- tionships, living conditions -- indeed, the whole fabric of society. The often rapid pace and broad sweep of industrialization prompted social theorists to seek explanations for these changes. Unit 2 explores how Marx, Weber and Durkheim, (all "found- ing figures" in the discipline of sociology) attempted to make sense of the many ways in which capitalism was fundamentally altering society. This Unit examines their divergent theories in order to illuminate the impact of capitalist industrializa- tion on work. Further, we trace how the issues that captivated the classical theorists -- the division of labour, class inequalities, social conflict, bureaucracy, technology -- set the tone for contem- porary research and debates. Have we advanced beyond capitalism to a "post-industrial society"? What are the implications for individual workers and for society of free trade, the microelectronics revolu- tion, economic globalization, industrial restructuring, flexible specialization production systems, and non-standard work forms? Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 9 1. Compare and contrast the different theoretical perspectives of Marx, Durkheim and Weber on capi- talist industrialization. 2. Discuss major twentieth-century theories on technology, industrialism, and the managerial revo- lution. 3. Critically assess contrasting theoretical posi- tions on the rise of a post-industrial society. 4. Outline key emerging trends, such as new tech- nologies, the service economy, industrial restructuring, economic globalization, and flexible employment strategies. 5. Identify the major theoretical debates and public policy challenges generated by these emerging forces of late-twentieth century industrialization. Readings (70 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 3.1 Shirley Carr, "Productivity: labour's view- point." 3.2 Thomas d'Aquino, "Productivity: friend or foe?" 3.3 Andrew Sharpe, "Training the work force: a challenge facing Canada in the '90s." 3.4 Canadian Labour Congress, "Two years under free trade." 3.5 John Crispo, "Forget the critics - free trade works." 3.6 John Myles, "Post-industrialism and the service economy." Section 1: Marx, Durkheim and Weber on the Social Impact of Capitalism Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What were the major social concerns that prompted Marx, Weber, and Durkheim to develop their theories? 2. What is the relevance of the theoretical ques- tions posed by Marx, Weber, and Durkheim for Canada, Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 10 or for other industrial societies with which you may be familiar? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory," pages 28-36. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  mode of production versus means of production  social relations of production  classes  class conflict  alienation  conflict versus consensus perspectives  division of labour  mutual interdependence  bureaucracy Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain how Marx saw social classes playing a major role in social change. 2. Outline Marx's view on the major consequences of capitalist production relations for workers. 3. Assess how Marx present a "conflict" perspective, while Durkheim presents a "consensus" perspective on society. 4. Describe Smith's and Babbage's analysis of the main economic benefits of a specialized division of labour. 5. Assess Durkheim's argument about the positive impact of a specialized occupational division of labour on society. 6. Define the key features of a bureaucracy, according to Weber, and explain why he saw bureau- cratic organizations as indispensable for the development of capitalism. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 11 Practice Exercise Look around your workplace, your community, Canadian society, or other societies you know about for any convincing evidence that can either support or refute the basic theories of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. On the whole, which of these theories has best stood the test of time in your opinion? Try to apply your own creativity by thinking of ways in which aspects of these theories could be revised to account for contemporary capitalism and its impact on society. Section 2: Technology, Industrialism, and Managers Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) What are the basic issues addressed in the theo- ries outlined in this section, and how do they reflect the concerns of Marx. Weber, and Durkheim? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory," pages 36-41. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  technology  social inequality  logic of industrialism, or convergence, thesis  functionalist theory of social stratification  managerial revolution Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline how Lenski links industrial technology to Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 12 the degree of inequality in society. 2. Describe the "logic of industrialism" thesis's prediction of a convergence among nations. 3. Assess the major weaknesses in the logic of industrialism thesis. 4. Compare and contrast the emphasis that Lenski and the advocates of the logic of industrialism thesis place on education. 5. Explain the basis for the managerial revolution thesis's prediction of reduced conflict in the workplace. Practice Exercise Education, technology, and new organizational structures are three major themes in the theories examined in this Unit. Based on your own observa- tions and experiences, try to assess how these factors influence inequality and conflict in today's society. In drawing your own conclusions, note if there any parallels with the theories of Lenski, the logic of industrialism thesis, or the managerial revolution thesis. Section 3: A Post-Industrial Society? Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) In what respects do the key social and economic changes of the past two decades indicate that Canada has entered a new "era" of capitalism? 2) Which recent trends in the service economy have major implications for public policy? Why? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory," pages 41-44. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 3.6 John Myles, "Post-industrialism and the service economy." Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 13 Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  post-industrial society  knowledge workers, or information workers  symbolic analysts  degradation of work  deskilling  income polarization  welfare state  McJobs  youth labour market  three employment strategies for the service economy Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe a "post-industrial society". 2. Explain why highly-educated workers play such an important role in a post-industrial society. 3. Outline Braverman's thesis that 20th century capitalist development is linked with the degrada- tion and deskilling of work? 4. Compare and contrast the different interpreta- tions of recent trends in work and society offered by Bell and Naisbitt, on one hand, and Braverman on the other hand. 5. Describe John Myles's analysis of the main trends contributing to growing labour market polarization and income inequality. 6. Assess the issues raised by John Myles's ques- tion, "what kind of service economy do we want in Canada?" Practice Exercise You have just been invited by the federal government to participate in a "citizen's forum" on future economic strategy. Based on the readings in this Section, what kind of government policies would you propose? What social, labour market and workplace trends form the basis for your "policy" position? Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 14 Section 4: Canada in A High-Tech, Global Economy Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) What are the major forces that are likely to shape the kind of work Canadians perform heading into the 21st century? 2) What accounts for the differing perspectives of workers, and their unions, and management on pro- ductivity, technological change, and other issues related to economic restructuring? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory," pages 44-51. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 3.1 Shirley Carr, "Productivity: labour's view- point." 3.2 Thomas d'Aquino, "Productivity: friend or foe?" Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  microelectronics revolution  industrial restructuring  globalization  deindustrialization  flexible specialization  flexible firm  functional versus numerical versus pay flexibility  productivity Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 15 1. Discuss why Canadian workers have grounds for concern over the negative impact of micro- electronics technology. 2. List some of the most visible effects of indus- trial restructuring in Canada. 3. Describe how flexible production systems improve the quality of working life. 4. Illustrate the major strategies used by employers to create "flexible firms". 5. Document the main reasons provided by Shirley Carr gives, in her article in Work in Canada, for unions' resistance to the concept of "productivity". 6. Assess the prospects for unions - management cooperation to improve productivity by comparing the arguments presented by Shirely Carr and Thomas d'Aquino, in their articles in Work in Canada. Practice Exercise Choose a workplace with which you are familiar. Try to document how the issues discussed in this Section have affected this workplace. Who mainly benefited -- workers, management, or both -- from these changes? Can you think of reasons that explain this outcome? Section 5: The Role of the State in Economic Life Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) What role has the Canadian state (government) played, through various policies, in industrial and labour market restructuring? 2) What kinds of state policies would be required to encourage the development of good quality employment opportunities in Canada? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 2, "Industrial capitalism, post- industrial society and social theory," pages 51-55. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 16 Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 3.3 Andrew Sharpe, "Training the work force: a challenge facing Canada in the '90s." 3.4 Canadian Labour Congress, "Two years under free trade." 3.5 John Crispo, "Forget the critics - free trade works." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  welfare state  Reagonomics and Thatcherism  Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)  laissez-faire  literacy and numeracy skills  skills gap  national training culture  Mexican Maquiladora Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Document how the role of the Canadian state in regulating employment and labour markets evolved historically. Why is the term "welfare state" appropriate for describing these developments. 2. Outline some of the main changes associated with neo-conservative governments and their "free market" orientation. 3. Assess the importance of the issue of "jobs" in the debate over free trade with the United States ( and now Mexico). 4. Outline the Canadian Labour Congress's analysis in Work in Canada, of the impact of the FTA. 5. Outline John Crispo's argument, in his article in Work in Canada, that NAFTA will ultimately benefit Canadian workers. 6. Assess the need to put more effort into job- related education and training. Practice Exercise Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 17 The impact of free trade (the FTA and NAFTA) is hotly contested. Because the FTA is relatively recent (and NAFTA , at the time of writing, has yet to be implemented) judging the effects on employment is an on-going process. In the time since the articles by the Canadian Labour Congress and John Crispo, and the section on free trade in the text- book, were written, what have been the developments in your experience? Would you conclude that, on balance, free trade with the United States has been positive or negative for Canadian workers? Base your analysis on you own observations, experiences, and any information you may have read or have handy on free trade. Unit 3 Unit 3: Labour Force Trends This Unit extensively documents all the major labour force trends in Canada, mainly using data from Sta- tistics Canada. This is perhaps the most "empirical" Unit in the course, in the sense that it presents many statistical trends and patterns. But what stu- dents will gain from all these numbers is, first, a clear understanding of employment and labour force patterns in Canada and, second, an ability to use the best available evidence to critically "test" claims made (often in the media) about present or future work trends. Briefly, the trends examined range from labour force participation patterns and changing occupational structures to part-time work and unemployment. We examine social, demographic and economic factors influencing labour force trends. At the same time, the impact of labour force changes on aspects of Canadian society, such as gender roles and income inequality, are also considered. The Unit ends with a far more cautious, empirically-grounded discussion of the future of work than typically found in popular accounts of this topic. Unit Objectives After completing this Unit, students should be able to: 1. Define the leading employment and labour market indicators, and where to find reliable data on these. 2. Discuss the development of major labour force trends. 3. Explain what it means, in both industrial and Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 18 occupational terms, to say that Canada is a "service economy". 4. Assess the major causes and consequences of unemployment. 5. Explain the significance of changes in labour markets and occupations for Canada's class struc- ture. 6. Describe major gender, age and regional varia- tions in labour market, occupational and industrial trends. 7. Document the trend toward non-standard work and explain its significance. Readings (113 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 2.1 Harvey Krahn, "Quality of work in the ser- vice economy." 2.2 Ann Duffy and Norene Pupo, "Part-time work paradox: connecting gender, work, and family." 2.3 Lawrence F. Felt and Peter R. Sinclair, "'Everyone does it': unpaid work in a rural peripheral region." 2.4 David K. Foot and Rosemary A Veene, "Popu- lation, pyramids and promotional prospects." 2.5 Ellen M. Gee and Susan A. McDaniel, "Pension politics and challenges: retirement policy implications." Section 1: Who Participates in the Labour Force? Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What influences whether or not an individual participates in the paid labour force? 2. What is the social and economic significance of unpaid work? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends," pages Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 19 60-67. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 2.3 Lawrence F. Felt and Peter R. Sinclair, "'Everyone does it': unpaid work in a rural peripheral region." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  labour fore participation  male versus female labour force participation rates  age differences in labour force participation rates  unpaid household and child care work  volunteer work  informal sector  self-provisioning Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Identify the main sources of labour force data in Canada. 2. Describe how labour force participation rates in Canada have changed during this century. 3. Discuss the key factors responsible for the his- torical changes in male and female labour force participation rates. 4. Explain how age helps us to understand patterns of labour force participation. 5. Document what important forms of work get over- looked if we restrict our analysis only to paid employment. 6. Describe what Felt and Sinclair, in their article in Work in Canada, consider to be the main forms of activity in the informal sector study of rural New- foundland, and discuss how this unpaid work forms a basic part of social life in the region Practice Exercise Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 20 Observe the level of labour force participation in your immediate neighbourhood or community. Now look beyond the formal labour force. What other forms of work, paid or unpaid, are important for your neigh- bours? Taking the perspective of Felt and Sinclair in their article, examine how people's activities in the paid labour force are integrated with their household, childcare, and informal sector activi- ties. Section 2: Work in the Service Economy Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1. Why is it necessary to examine the diversity of employment within the service sector? 2. What evidence suggests that major sources of inequality are being created within the service sector? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends," pages 67-72. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 2.1 Harvey Krahn, "Quality of work in the ser- vice economy." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  primary sector versus secondary sector versus tertiary (service) sector  service economy  upper tier versus lower tier service industries  market-based versus non-market based services  gender and age differences in service sector employment  non-standard forms of work  good jobs versus bad jobs  student labour market Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 21 Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain why it is accurate to refer to Canada as a "service economy." 2. Explain how the distinction between upper tier and lower tier industries captures the diversity of employment conditions within the service sector. 3. Identify the major gender differences in industry of employment. 4. Discuss how age is a key factor in determining who works in low-status jobs. 5. Define non-standard employment. 6. Assess Krahn's argument, in his article in Work in Canada, that there is a growing distinction between good jobs and bad jobs in the service sec- tor. Practice Exercise Based on your own observations, assess the useful- ness of the concepts of upper-tier and lower-tier sectors in the service economy for describing employment differences. Now include non-standard jobs in your analysis, determining which of the service industries you would most likely expect to find this kind of work. Are these industries mainly in the lower-tier? The purpose of this exercise, as you have no doubt guesses, is to encourage you to judge the accuracy of the analytic concepts being used in the readings. Section 3: Occupation, Class, and Region Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How has occupational change reshaped the class structure of Canadian society? 2) What role does geographic location (region, com- munity) play in defining the work opportunities and experiences of Canadians? Reading Assignments Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 22 Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends." , pages 72-83. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  occupation  blue collar versus white collar occupations  social class versus socio-economic status  gender composition of the occupational structure  self-employment  Eric Olin Wright's definition of social classes  regional variations in industry and employment  staples theory of economic growth  life-cycle of resource towns  occupational structure in single-industry commu- nities Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. .Discuss how occupational changes have been associated with changes in the gender composition of occupations. 2. Document the historical trends in self-employment and their implications for Canada's class structure. 3. Assess the usefulness of Eric Olin Wright's definition of social classes for understanding the Canadian class structure. 4. Outline the main regional variations in employ- ment. 5. Discuss some of the main risks associated with economic reliance on natural resources. 6. Illustrate some of the main features of work in single-industry communities. Practice Exercise Apply the themes of gender, class, and region to the occupations in your community. Observe the follow- ing: how the occupational structure is gendered; the ways in which occupations give rise to distinct social classes; and the influence of regional Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 23 industrial development on occupational opportuni- ties. Your observations may only be general, but try to get a feel for what it is like to do this kind of sociological analysis. Section 4: Unemployment Thought Questions As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) Who are the unemployed and what factors account for their joblessness? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends," pages 83-91. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  unemployment rates  discouraged workers  long-term trends in unemployment rates  regional, gender and age differences in unemploy- ment  cyclical versus frictional versus structural unemployment  international differences in unemployment rates Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Identify what the official unemployment rate includes and excludes. 2. Document the long-term trend in Canadian unem- ployment rates for both males and females. 3. Outline the main reasons for regional differences in unemployment. 4. Explain why young workers are more vulnerable to unemployment than older workers. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 24 5. Assess the commonly held views about why people are unemployed in light of scholarly research on the causes of unemployment. 6. Identify the main reasons countries such as Swe- den, Japan and Germany have such relatively low unemployment rates. Practice Exercise Imagine that you have just been appointed to a Royal Commission with the goal of finding solutions to the problem of high unemployment. Based on your assess- ment of the reading for this Section (and any pervious readings you consider relevant), what would you recommend? Also present the rationale for your recommendations, based on an analysis of the causes of high unemployment. Section 5: Non-Standard Work Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) What are the advantages of non-standard work, particularly part-time work, for employers and employees? 2) Conversely, what are the disadvantages of non- standard work arrangements for employers and employees? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends," pages 91-96. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 2.2 Ann Duffy and Norene Pupo, "Part-time work paradox: connecting gender, work, and family." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the readings, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  working hours  five kinds of nonstandard work Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 25  part-time work  involuntary part-time workers  temporary employment  part-year work  complexity and diversity of women's employment patterns  personal choices versus structural constraints Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Document how the length of the work week has changed in Canada historically. 2. Refer to your notes from Section 2 in this Unit on non-standard work. Expand and refine your defi- nition of non-standard work according to the new material presented in this Section. 3. Describe the main trends in part-time employment, including the phenomenon of involuntary part-time work. 4. Discuss the importance of temporary employment and part-year work in the labour force today. 5. Explain the "paradox" of part-time employment for women, as described by Duffy and Pupo in their article in Work in Canada. 6. Assess why, according to Duffy and Pupo in their article in Work in Canada, women often do not freely choose part-time work, even though the women them- selves think they have exercised freedom of choice. Practice Exercise Take Duffy and Pupo's critical discussion of how much actual "choice" women exercise in opting for part-time employment, and apply it to all forms of non-standard work. On balance, do you think that workers in non-standard work situations prefer them to having a secure, full-time job? Section 6: Future Labour Market Trends Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) What labour force trends are likely to have the greatest impact on the future of work in Canada, and Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 26 why? 2) What sorts of public policies would minimize the negative impact of the trends documented in the readings? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 3, "Canadian labour force trends," pages 96-101. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 2.4 David K. Foot and Rosemary A Veene, "Popu- lation, pyramids and promotional prospects." 2.5 Ellen M. Gee and Susan A McDaniel, "Pension politics and challenges: retirement policy implications." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the readings, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  increased labour market polarization  worker education and training  baby boom  career plateauing  immigration and the labour market  linear career paths  alternative career paths and organizational structures  early retirement and flexible retirement policies  mandatory retirement  pensions and social inequality Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Summarize the evidence (from this and previous Sections) which indicates growing polarization in the Canadian labour market. 2. Assess the importance of human resource develop- ment for both employees and employers. 3. Discuss the implications of Canada's immigration policies for the labour market. 4. Identify the various ways that population aging Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 27 has a direct affect on organizations, labour mar- kets, and related public policy. 5. Outline Foot and Veene's argument for the need to redesign organizational structures and careers. 6. Using Gee and McDaniel's arguments and evidence, assess how present pension arrangements and retire- ment policies disadvantage women. Practice Exercise Which of the trends discussed in this Section do you consider to be most important for the future? Explain why you think so. Do the policy responses suggested in the readings (or in other relevant readings from the Course) provide adequate solu- tions? If not, what else needs to be done? Unit 4 Unit 4: Sociology of Labour Markets One of the basic questions for sociologists is who gets access to interesting jobs, high incomes, high-status professions, and top decision making positions in organizations. Asking this and other questions about inequality guided our discussion of labour market trends, in Unit 3. Unit 4 tries to provide more comprehensive answers to these ques- tions by explaining how labour markets operate to create and perpetuate inequalities. We begin by considering what constitutes a "good job", the cru- cial resource that seems to be in chronically short supply in the labour market. This prompts analyses of the labour market structures and processes which open the doors leading to good jobs for some groups in society, while closing these doors for others. The Unit considers different theories of how labour markets operate: human capital theory, theories of social mobility and status attainment, and labour market segmentation theory. The reading assignment assesses how adequately each accounts for the emer- gence and persistence of inequalities. Particular attention is focused on how specific groups -- namely women, native Canadian, persons with dis- abilities, and visible minorities -- historically have been disadvantaged in the labour market. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 28 to: 1. Define the major differences between good and bad jobs. 2. Outline the human capital model of the labour market, comparing and contrasting it with other theoretical perspectives, particularly labour market segmentation theory. 3. Evaluate the role of education in determining an individual's success in the labour market. 4. Assess the insights derived from status attain- ment and social mobility research about how labour markets operate. 5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of labour market segmentation theory. 6. Document the kinds of discrimination which spe- cific groups (e.g., visible minorities, disabled individuals, aboriginal persons, and women) have faced in the Canadian labour market. Readings (85 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 4.1 Agnes Calliste, "Sleeping car porters in Canada: an ethnically submerged labour market." 4.2 Jeffrey G. Reitz, "Less racial discrimina- tion in Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons with Britain." 4.3 Shona McKay, "Ready, willing and able." 4.4 James B. Waldram, "Native employment and hydroelectric development in Northern Manitoba." Section 1: Defining Good and Bad Jobs Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What are the various approaches taken by soci- ologists to examine the inequalities created in the labour market? 2. How does this section help to enlarge your view of what defines a "good" job? Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 29 Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour market,." pages 108-117. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  labour market  extrinsic versus intrinsic job rewards  gender-based wage gap  income inequality and income distribution  fringe benefits  socioeconomic status  Blishen scores Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Define the concept of a labour market, and iden- tity other institutions and organizations that interact with it. 2. Document the major differences in occupational rewards, in terms of income and fringe benefits. 3. Discuss the evidence on the gender-based wage gap presented in Figure 4.1 on page 111 of the textbook. 4. Assess the long-term pattern of income inequality in Canada. 5. Explain how Blishen scores measure socioeconomic status. 6. Outline the alternative measures for socioeco- nomic status. Practice Exercise We began pursuing the question of employment dif- ferences in Unit 2 by using the rather crude distinction between good jobs and bad jobs. Now you have become familiar with many labour market trends that document differences in employment, and also have an understanding of analytic concepts used (such as class, nonstandard jobs, socio-economic status) to analyze these distinctions. To help you Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 30 assess and assimilate this information, it would be timely to pull together these pieces of evidence and concepts into your own comprehensive definition of good jobs and bad jobs. Try to make your distinc- tions between these two general categories of jobs as detailed and thorough as possible. Section 2: Human Capital and Occupational Success Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) What role does education play in determining a person's success in the labour market? 2) What other factors determine who gets the better jobs? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages 117-127. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  human capital theory  occupational choice  equality of opportunity  educational aspirations versus educational attainment  cultural capital  aspirations versus occupational attainment  social mobility versus occupational mobility  intragenerational mobility versus intergenera- tional mobility  structural mobility versus circulatory mobility  open society versus closed society  meritocracy  status attainment Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 31 1. Summarize the basic arguments of human capital theory. 2. Explain how a person's social class origins influence her or his educational aspirations and how, in turn, these aspirations are related to edu- cational attainment. 3. Explain how higher educational and occupational aspirations tend to translate into higher occupa- tional attainment. 4. Discuss what the concept of cultural capital tells us about the reproduction of class inequali- ties in society. 5. Evaluate to what extent Canada is an open or a closed society, in terms of the degree of social mobility that occurs. 6. Discuss how status attainment research provides evidence both for and against a human capital model of the labour market. Practice Exercise Take each of the theoretical perspectives presented in this Section and identify its key argument about who gets ahead. Now draw on your own social circles to compare and contrast the usefulness of each per- spective in accounting for inequalities in Canadian society. Which model best accounts for how your acquaintances, friends and family members achieved their present educational or occupational status? Would a combination of some of these theories pro- vide a fuller analysis? Section 3: Segmented Labour Markets Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How are labour markets organized, or "struc- tured", to create good jobs with restricted access? 2) How do various kinds of secondary labour market segments, as described in the readings, contribute to social inequality? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 32 pages 127-134. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 4.1 Agnes Calliste, "Sleeping car porters in Canada: an ethnically submerged labour market." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  labour market segmentation perspective  secondary labour market versus primary labour market  dual economy model  core sector versus periphery sector  independent versus subordinate employment in the primary sector  job ghettos  internal labour market  labour market shelters  professions  market closure  split labour market theory  occupational ethnic segregation Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain how the labour market segmentation per- spective rejects the core assumptions of human capital theory. 2. Discuss the dual economy model's analysis of why some industries offer good employment conditions and high wages. 3. Describe how Reiter's study of Burger King (pages 130-131 of the textbook) illustrates the dual economy model's concept of employment in a secondary labour market. 4. Define an internal labour market and give three major examples. 5. Document the various ways professions create and maintain sheltered labour markets for their members. 6. Outline Calliste's analysis, in her article on black sleeping car porters, of how race (or ethnic- ity) is used as a basis for building inequality into Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 33 the railways' systems of employment. Practice Exercise Using the studies by Reiter, reported in the text- book on pages 130 to 131, and Calliste (in her article in Work in Canada) as models, pick an occu- pation or a workplace you are familiar with and imagine conducting a similar study. What theoretical concepts and insights from the readings in this section would be good analytic tools? Does the case you selected lend further support to a labour market segmentation model of how the labour market oper- ates? Section 4: Labour Market Barriers and Discrimination Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How significant a problem is labour market dis- crimination in Canada? 2) What government and employer policies could reduce or eliminate the barriers faced by the vis- ible minorities, the disabled, and native people? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages 134-138. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 4.2 Jeffrey G. Reitz, "Less racial discrimina- tion in Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons with Britain." 4.3 Shona McKay, "Ready, willing and able." 4.4 James B. Waldram, "Native employment and hydroelectric development in Northern Manitoba." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  structural labour market barriers  marginal work world Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 34  forms of employer discrimination  student labour market  racial discrimination  racial conflict  employment equity policies  discriminatory behaviour versus discriminatory attitudes  integrating employees with disabilities  costs versus benefits of development projects for native Canadians  native employment as tokenism Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe how geography can create barriers to mobility out of secondary labour market segments. 2. Explain how age, gender, disability, or race can be the basis for excluding individuals with these characteristics from primary labour markets. 3. Assessing the evidence presented in the textbook on pages 137 to 138 and in Reitz's article in Work in Canada, .what is the extent of racial discrimi- nation in Canada? 4. Discuss why Reitz, in his article in Work in Canada, argues that there is less racial conflict in Canada compared with Britain. 5. Identify the most effective ways of integrating disabled employees into the workplace, based on McKay's discussion in her article in Work in Canada. 6. Analyze the overall impact of development projects on native employment, using the material presented by Waldron in his article in Work in Canada. Practice Exercise What is your assessment of the extent of discrimi- nation in your local labour market. Which groups are discriminated against, and how does this discrimi- nation occur? Do you see any way of constructively addressing this problem? Section 5: Segmentation and Polarization Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 35 1) How does a labour market segmentation perspective contribute to our understanding of the changing patterns of inequality in society? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 4, "The sociology of labour markets," pages 139-142. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  labour market segmentation and class conflict  initial proletarianization versus homogenization of labour versus segmentation of labour  shrinking middle class  ups killing versus despoiling  strengths versus weaknesses of labour market seg- mentation models Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline Gordon, Edwards and Reich's (on page 139 of the textbook) thesis regarding the historical decline of class conflict in the United States. 2. Identify the major new trends in labour market segmentation found in Canada, and relate these to discussions in earlier Units. 3. Itemize the key criticisms of labour market seg- mentation theory. 4. Assess the strengths of labour market segmenta- tion theory in comparison to human capital theory. Practice Exercise Make a list of the major theoretical perspectives presented in this Unit on a page, leaving a half- dozen blank lines under each theory. Now make your own evaluation of each, based on how well you think it contributes to your understanding of how labour market structures and processes create social inequality. Using these criteria, list under each Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 36 theory one main strength and one main weakness. Do you see useful ways of combining elements of these theories? Unit 5 Unit 5: Women's Employment Undoubtedly the most dramatic change in Canada's labour force in the past few decades is the sharp rise in women's labour force participation. While women recently have been entering a wider range of better jobs, these advances must be contrasted with long-standing gender inequalities, such as the male-female wage gap and the concentration of women in low-status clerical, sales and service jobs. This Unit investigates these apparently contradictory trends, seeking explanations for women's economic progress in the face of persistent and often subtle employment barriers. The analytic focus of the Unit is on how employment has become "gendered". That is, how have certain jobs become socially defined, over time, as better suited for women than men (or vice versa)? From a public policy perspective, this poses the challenge of how we can eliminate these artifi- cial barriers. In this regard, the Unit examines two important recent policy initiatives: pay equity and employment equity. Both aim to create greater equality between men and women in the labour market. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: 1. Document the major forms of gender inequality in the world of work. 2. Explain the relationship between women's paid employment and unpaid work in the household. 3. Analyze the factors influencing women's labour force participation, as an overall trend and for individual women. 4. Assess different theoretical perspectives on the gender segregation of jobs within the labour market and within work organizations. 5. Explain the main reasons for the persistence of the wage gap. 6. Outline the objectives of sexual harassment, pay equity and employment equity policies, and the means Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 37 each uses for achieving these goals. Readings (81 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 5, "Women's employment." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 5.1 Cynthia Wishart, "Workplace harassment." 5.2 Alexandra Dagg and Judy Fudge, "Sewing pains: homeworkers in the garment trade." 5.3 Thelma McCormack, "Post-mortem - L‚pine: women in engineering." 5.4 Jane Gaskell, "What counts as skill: reflections on pay equity." Section 1: Women's Changing Economic and Family Roles Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. In what respects has the interaction between paid labour force work and unpaid family and household work defined women's economic roles historically? 2. What signs are there that women's subordinate economic role has not changed, despite rapid increases in their labour force participation? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 5, "Women's employment," pages 149-160. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 5.2 Alexandra Dagg and Judy Fudge, "Sewing pains: homeworkers in the garment trade." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  sex versus gender Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 38  women as household managers  family wage ideologies  family wage  women's paid versus unpaid work  female labour force participation trends and variations  individualization of women's lives  double day or second shift  patriarchy  two-person career  work-family conflict  homeworker  pyramid subcontracting system Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline the defining features of women's economic roles in Canada during the late-19th and early 20th centuries. 2. Explain how social values, or ideologies, con- tributed to restricting women's work opportunities. 3. Define the key changes in women's employment patterns in the last several decades. 4. Document the major factors that underlie varia- tions in female labour force participation. 5. Analyze the causes of the work-family conflict women experience. 6. Describe the pyramid subcontracting structure of the garment industry, as documented in the article by Dagg and Fudge in Work in Canada, indicating how it results in the exploitation of women workers. Practice Exercise Using your present workplace, or a previous work- place, focus on the interaction between work and family for female and male employees. Which group experiences the most work-family conflict, and why? Finally, list three employer and/or government policies that would make the greatest improvement in work-family conflict. Section 2: Documenting Gender Inequalities in the Labour Market Thought Question Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 39 As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) Why have women and men tended to work in differ- ence occupations? 2) Why do women on average earn less than men? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 5, "Women's employment," pages 160-175. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  occupational gender segregation  ghettos versus shelters  gender labeling of jobs  feminization of an occupation  horizontal versus vertical occupational segrega- tion  glass ceiling  wage gap  trends in real earnings  wage discrimination  impact of education on female earrings Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain how the gender labeling of jobs contrib- utes to occupational gender segregation. 2. Sketch out the major current trends in occupa- tional gender segregation. 3. Explain how, and why, gender-based job segrega- tion has diminished during this century. 4. Discuss how some occupations are vertically seg- regated, and the implications of this for women's careers. 5. Outline trends in real male and female earnings in recent decades. 6. Explain the major factors accounting for the wage gap. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 40 Practice Exercise Now is an opportune time to take stock of all the material presented so far in the Course on gender- based inequalities. Using this Section as your basis, review your notes from previous Units and make a summary of the major causes and consequences of occupational gender segregation. Assess what you consider to be the three major factors that have historically contributed to the gender segregation documented in this Unit, and elsewhere. Also iden- tify what you regard as the three major social consequences of this segregation. This exercise is designed to encourage you to critically integrate the material on this topic and to draw your own conclusion. Section 3: Explaining Work-Related Gender Inequali- ties Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How does the organization of work contribute to gender inequalities? 2) How influential are social attitudes (including stereotypes and "culture") in defining which jobs are suitable for women, and which are suitable for men? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 5, "Women's employment," pages 175-180. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 5.3 Thelma McCormack, "Post-mortem - L‚pine: women in engineering." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  job versus gender models of the workplace  labour market segmentation model's explanation of Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 41 gender inequalities  gender role socialization  gender role stereotypes  workplace socialization  relative work satisfactions  organizational versus materialist models of gen- dered divisions of labour  office wife  tokenism  feminist analysis of women's work experiences  male culture of the engineering profession  feminization of science and technology Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline how feminist analysis has advanced research on women's work beyond the "job" and "gen- der" models described by Feldberg and Glenn on page 175 of the textbook. 2. Explain how the readings in this Section provide a critique of the labour market segmentation model (discussed earlier in Unit 4, and in this Section on page 176 of the textbook).. 3. Illustrate how gender role socialization con- tributes to reproducing gender inequalities in occupations. 4. Outline Kanter's analysis (on pages 177-179 of the textbook) of how job content and organizational structures end up trapping many women in in low- level jobs. 5. Assess McCormack's argument, in her article in Work in Canada, that the "male culture" of engi- neering has been a major barrier to women entering this profession. 6. Evaluate McCormack's discussion of how the femi- nization of science and technology would fundamentally change the engineering profession. Practice Exercise Reread McCormick's article quickly. Note how her analysis is explicitly feminist, challenging all the main assumptions on which males' control of the engineering profession rests. Do you agree with her arguments, conclusions, and suggestions for change? Write your own brief response to McCormack which outlines your position on these issues. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 42 Section 4: Policies to Achieve Greater Workplace Equality Thought Questions As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) How effective have pay equity, employment equity and sexual harassment policies been in creating greater equality of rewards, more opportunities, and respectful work environments for women in Canada? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 5, "Women's employment," pages 180-184. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 5.1 Cynthia Wishart, "Workplace harassment." 5.4 Jane Gaskell, "What counts as skill: reflections on pay equity." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  employment equity  double disadvantage  systemic discrimination  designated groups  pay equity versus comparable worth  equal pay for work of equal value versus equal pay for the same work  sexual harassment  process of defining skill Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe the rationale for employment equity policy . 2. Explain how employment equity attempts to achieves the goal of ensuring that ability is the only criteria used in employment decisions. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 43 3. Define pay equity and outline the method it uses to implement the principle of equal pay for work of equal value. 4. Itemize the main criticisms of the kinds of pay equity and employment equity policies which have been introduced so far in Canada. 5. Outline Gaskell's explanation, presented in her Work in Canada article, of why the social process of defining skill and training disadvantages women. 6. Assess the effectiveness of different methods of preventing sexual harassment. Practice Exercise Now that you understand complementary theoretical perspectives on gender-based work inequalities, focus on policy solutions. After looking over the discussions of pay equity, employment equity and sexual harassment policies, discuss whether you agree or disagree that such policies need to be further strengthened. If you disagree, explain why. If you agree, outline how in your opinion such policies could realistically be strengthened. Unit 6 Unit 6: Organizing And Managing Work In this Unit, we shift our attention from the study of "macro" trends and rather abstract entities -- such as labour markets -- to the concrete ways in which work is organized and managed. For the vast majority of us, organizations structure our work experiences. Life in organizations, whether small local business or huge global corporations, is regulated largely by the decisions and actions of managers. In short, essential to a full understand- ing of work is how it is organized and managed. This Unit therefore is guided by the following kinds of questions: Why has work come to be organized bureaucratically? What has been the role of managers in shaping work organizations? What characterizes the various schools of management that have evolved? Why are some management specialists now calling for a "revolution" in management thinking? To what extent do employees influence managerial authority and organizational dynamics -- in other words, do they have much say at all? What are the possibili- ties for reforming work organizations, in response to the challenges of a global economy, advancing Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 44 automation, and new labour force demographics? Are there other models of organizing and managing work, such as the Japanese approach, that provide useful lessons for Canada? Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: 1. Explain why the bureaucracy arose as the dominant organizational form under capitalism, and the kinds of problems it has created for employees and manag- ers. 2. Compare and contrast the major theoretical per- spectives on organizations. 3. Compare and contrast leading schools of manage- ment, particularly scientific management and human relations. 4. Explain what the concept of culture helps us to understand about life in organizations. 5. Illustrate the lessons that Swedish and Japanese industrial organization can provide Canadians for improving their own workplaces. 6. Identify major organizational innovations and new directions in management currently being imple- mented, including their likely impact for employers and employees. 7. Analyze the role of technology in the organiza- tion and management of work. Readings (78 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 6.1 Auditor General of Canada, "Well-performing organizations." 6.2 Ann Walmsley, "Trading places." 6.3 Jerry Zeidenberg, "The just-in-time work- force." 6.4 David Olive, "The new hardline." 6.5 Louis E. Davis and Charles S. Sullivan, "A labour-management contract and the quality of working life." Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 45 Section 1: Bureaucracy and Beyond Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What are the major advantages and disadvantages of bureaucratic organizations? 2. How have recent developments in organizational theory accounted for the problems of bureaucracy? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work," pages 188-196. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 6.1 Auditor General of Canada, "Well-performing organizations." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  bureaucratic hierarchy  bureaucratic personality  power relations  rational-legal value system  Fordism  contingency theory  organic model of organizations  sociotechnical systems  problem of reifying organizations  strategic choice versus strategic planning  post-modernism  organizational change  well-performing organizations Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Document different ways in which bureaucracy unintentionally creates inefficiencies. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 46 2. Define Fordism and explain its significance for workplaces in the 20th century. 3. Outline how sociotechnical systems, strategic choice, and post-modernism offer critical alterna- tives to the organic model of organizations presented by contingency theory. 4. Assess the usefulness of the concept of "strat- egy" in studying organizations. 5. Explain how change occurs in organizations. 6. Identify the main factors which, according to the Auditor General's study reported in Work in Canada, define a fell-performing organization. Practice Exercise Carefully review the ingredients of well-performing organizations outlined in the Auditor General's report in Work in Canada. For this exercise, try to apply these criteria to an organization with which you are familiar. How far can this "model" be gen- eralized? Are there other ingredients of excellent performance that need to be added, based on your experience? Do the employees in your case study consider it a great place to work? Section 2: Explaining the Role of Managers Thought Question As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) Do managers actually "control" organizations? 2) What have been the lasting effects of the scien- tific management and the human relations approaches to management? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work," pages 197-209. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 47 related terms, as indicated.  management ideology versus theory versus practice  social action perspective  management decision-making  scientific management  worker soldiering  the labour problem  corporate welfare or industrial betterment  human relations school of management  three methods of compliance  Hawthorne Studies  Hawthorne effect  organizational culture  dominant versus counter (or alternative) culture Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain why it is useful to distinguish between management ideology, practice, and theory. 2. Define the key features of scientific management and identify its continuing influence in the work- place. 3. Compare and contrast the underlying assumptions and actual practices of scientific management and human relations. 4. Assess the controversies over the Hawthorne Studies and their influence on the human relations approach to management. 5. Discuss how "culture" is an essential feature of organizational life. . 6. Explain how national cultures influence worker behaviour and attitudes. Practice Exercise Based the reading, summarize the main elements of scientific management and human relations. Now try to identify a major example of how each is applied today in the workplace. Briefly discuss how the examples are different, or similar. Section 3: New Ways of Managing? Thought Questions Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 48 As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How can we judge the extent to which management has actually developed "new paradigms"? 2) Are the problems which result from bureaucracy, Fordism and Taylorism (cited earlier in this Unit) rectified by these new approaches to management? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work," pages 209-214. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 6.3 Jerry Zeidenberg, "The just-in-time work- force." 6.4 David Olive, "The new hardline." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  paradigm  empowerment  cowboy management  adhocracy  matrix structure  total quality management  just-in-time employment  benevolent business enterprise Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Define paradigm, and explain why the changes in management now being proposed constitute a "new paradigm". 2. Identify the common themes in the writings of Boyett and Conn, Peters, Kanter, and Mintzberg (discuss in the textbook on pages 210 and 211). 3. Outline the objectives of total quality manage- ment, and discuss how it attempts to achieve these objectives. 4. Discuss some of the likely impacts of new-style Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 49 management on the average employee. 5. Document the main benefits employers will reap from having a "just-in-time workforce", according to Zeidenberg's article in Work in Canada. 6. Outline Olive's objections, in his article in Work in Canada, to the kind of get-tough approach some large corporations are taking to their employ- ees. Practice Exercise Critically evaluate the various new approaches to management you have read about in this Section. Pay specific attention to their likely impact on employees. Which strategies do you expect to have the greatest negative impact on employees? Which do you think could significantly benefit employees? Section 4: Humanizing Work Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) Which of the work reforms described make the greatest improvements in the quality of working life, and how do they achieve this goal? 2) How do the various work humanization schemes described in this Section address the main problems associated with traditional approaches to organizing and managing work, as outlined in earlier Sections? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work," pages 214-220. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 6.5 Louis E. Davis and Charles S. Sullivan, "A labour-management contract and the quality of working life." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 50 related terms, as indicated.  quality of working life (QWL)  job enlargement versus job enrichment  job rotation  autonomous work teams versus quality circles  greenfield site  matrix group  buffer zone  design team  continuous process technology  sociotechnical systems design  team coordinator  post-bureaucratic organization  collective agreement  social system support mechanism Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline the intellectual origins, practical objectives, and main job redesign techniques of quality of working life (QWL) programs. 2. Assess the impact of quality of working life programs in Canadian workplaces. 3. Compare and contrast how the Volvo and Saab automobile factories in Sweden use sociotechnical work design to minimize the negative impact of technology. 4. Explain how Shell's chemical plant in Sarnia, Ontario is based on a sociotechnical design. 5. Describe how work is organized and actually car- ried out in the Shell chemical plant. 6. Document the conditions under which unions are most likely to participate with management in qual- ity of working life schemes. Practice Exercise Having familiarized yourself with quality of working life schemes, and in particular the design features of the Shell chemical plant, draw up a list of what in your opinion constitutes a truly humanized work- place. Apply these criteria to your present or previous workplace. Is this an impossible task? If so, what are the barriers to such changes? What QWL approach is most likely to be successful n your chosen case? Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 51 Section 5: Managing Japanese-Style Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) Why is the Japanese approach to work organization and management so successful in economic terms? 2) What are the problems associated with introducing the Japanese management style into Canada? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 6, "The organization and management of work," pages 220-225. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 6.2 Ann Walmsley, "Trading places." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  nenko  ringi  quality circle  tacit skill  just-in-time parts delivery  Japanese transplant  kaizen Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Identify the essential ingredients of the Japa- nese system of management. 2. Explain how the concept of kaizen (continuous improvement) is put into practice. 3. Describe the difficulties Japanese managers have encountered trying to apply their management systems in transplant factories in North America. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 52 4. Outline the modifications required to adapt Japanese management practices in Canadian society. 5. Compare the positive and negative aspects of employment in a Japanese transplant from the work- ers' perspective. Practice Exercise What is your overall assessment of Japanese manage- ment? To what extent does Japanese management offer solutions to the problems with traditional North American work organizations, outlined earlier in the Unit? Unit 7 Unit 7: Unions and Industrial Relations Unions are the one institution that can represent the interests of workers against the usually far greater power of employers. As such, unions have an impact on wages, working conditions, the employment relationship, and many other aspects of working life. In this Unit, we explore the role of unions in society. This also requires discussion of the government-regulated legal framework that sets down the "rules of the game" for union-management rela- tions. From a sociological perspective, studying unions highlights the theoretical themes of con- flict, power, inequality, and collective action. With these as a theoretical backdrop, the unit explores the nature of industrial conflict and cooperation, the connection between workers' local- ized collective action and the more general phenomenon of class conflict, and the possibility for an impartial role for the state in regulating industrial relations. The development and growth of the Canadian labour movement is also briefly sketched. Three contemporary issues -- the relative strengths of Canada's' unions compared with those in the United States, the adaptation of unions to a growing female membership, and rising management opposition to unions -- round out the unit. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: 1. Explain why workers join unions. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 53 2. Describe the growth and development of unions and union membership in Canada. 3. Outline the role of the state in establishing an industrial relations system, and assess how this role may be changing. 4. Discuss the challenges facing Canadian unions in the future. 5. Analyze the changes brought about in unions by the rising number of women members. 6. Assess the extent to which unions either quell or inflame class conflict, and the implications of this conflict (or lack of it) for the survival of capi- talism. Readings (71 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 7.1 Mary Lou Coates, "Is there a future for the Canadian labour movement?" 7.2 Bryan D. Palmer, "A tale of two provinces: The assault on the public sector in Quebec and British Columbia." 7.3 Charlotte Yates, "The internal dynamics of union power: Explaining Canadian autoworkers' militancy in the 1980s." 7.4 Linda Briskin, "Women, unions and leader- ship." Section 1: Why Unions? Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. Why do workers organize into unions? 2. What are the main functions of unions? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations," pages 230-237. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 54 Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  motivations to unionize  formal versus informal aspects of industrial relations  conflict versus cooperation in union-management relations  negotiations as a zero-sum game  unions as managers of discontent  iron law of oligarchy  business unionism versus social unionism  big labour versus business unionism images of unions  monopoly voice versus collective voice faces of unionism Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Identify the major factors which account for the origins of unions. 2. Explain why the concepts of conflict and coop- eration are both indispensable for understanding union-management relations. 3. Discuss how unions actually contribute to the reduction of conflict in capitalist societies. 4. Assess to what extent it is accurate to refer to North American unions as engaging in "business unionism". 5. Describe the main trends in public opinion toward unions in Canada. 6. Outline Freeman and Medoff's answer, on pages 236 to 237 of the textbook, to the question: "what do unions do?" Practice Exercise To gain familiarity with the issues in this section, try using two of the following ideas -- adversary system, zero-sum game, win-win, managers of discon- tent, business unionism, and collective voice face -- to analyze the activities of a union you know something about. If your response is, "but I don't know much about any union", find a relative or Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 55 friend who belongs to a union and discuss the two ideas you selected with her or him. Section 2: Development of Unions and Industrial Relations in Canada Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) What are the key factors which influenced the development and growth of the Canadian labour move- ment? 2) What impact has the state had, both as legislator and employer, on Canadian industrial relations? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations," pages 237-245. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 7.2 Bryan D. Palmer, "A tale of two provinces: The assault on the public sector in Quebec and British Columbia." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  craft versus industrial unions  international versus national unions  syndicalism  the state as impartial umpire  institutionalization of industrial conflict  Rand Formula  permanent exceptionalism  union density  union locals  Common Front  Solidarity Coalition Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 56 your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Document the ways in which craft unions influ- enced the early development of the Canadian labour movement. 2. Outline how industrial unions differ from craft unions, and discuss how the former came to play an increasingly important role in the Canadian labour movement. 3. Identify several key features of the Quebec labour movement which make it distinctive. 4. Explain how government legislation and legal decisions have lead to the institutionalization of conflict. 5. Identify the major phases of union membership growth, noting the factors responsible for this growth. 6. Compare and contrast the anti-union actions of the Quebec and British Columbia governments, as described in Palmer's article in Work in Canada. Practice Exercise Critically evaluate the role of the state in indus- trial relations in Canada. Use two of the concepts from the readings -- impartial umpire and permanent exceptionalism (on pages 241 and 243, respectively, of the textbook) -- to assess how this role has changed in recent decades. Section 3: The Current Scene and Future Prospects for Canadian Labour Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) What accounts for the divergent paths of unionism in Canada and the United States? 2) How would you assess the future prospects for Canadian unions? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations," Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 57 pages 245-253. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 7.1 Mary Lou Coates, "Is there a future for the Canadian labour movement?" Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  right to work laws  Canada versus U.S. union membership trends  variations in Canadian union membership  public versus private sector unions  Public Service Staff Relations Act  Canadianization of the labour movement  concessions  private sector unionization decline or stagnation  new human resource management Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Identify the major factors responsible for the decline of union membership in the U.S. 2. Document the key variations in Canadian union membership by region, industry, and occupation. 3. Describe the main differences between male and female unionization rates. 4. Outline the rise of public sector unions and the main reasons for this trend. 5. Explain how the labour movement is being "Cana- dianized". 6. List the major challenges Canada's unions must overcome if they are to survive. Practice Exercise Based on the readings in this section, lists the main strengths and the weaknesses of the labour movement in Canada. Now look at the decline of U.S. unions. What in your view has prevented unions in Canada from heading down the same path? Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 58 Section 4: Women and Unions Thought Questions As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1) What are the major barriers to the unionization of women, and once union members, what barriers do they face within unions? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations," pages 253-256. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 7.4 Linda Briskin, "Women, unions and leadership." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  female unionization patterns  passive woman worker argument  gendered union politics  barriers to women within unions  affirmative action leadership positions in unions  feminist union politics  feminist process in unions Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Document female union membership patterns. 2. Identify the key factors which account for the lower rate of unionization among women. 3. Explain what Sugiman, on page 255 of the text- book, means by "gendered strategies of coping and resistance." 4. Describe how a growing female membership is influencing the policies and collective bargaining Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 59 priorities of many unions. 5. Document the barriers that have made it diffi- cult for women to enter union leadership positions. 6. Explain how, according to Briskin's article in Work in Canada, feminists have begun to transform the male-dominated character of unions. Practice Exercise In your opinion, what are four prerequisites for increasing the rate of unionization among women? Section 5: Management Opposition to Unions Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1) How do employers make it difficult, if not impossible, for some workers to join unions? 2) How did the pursuit of a non-concessions policy make the UAW in Canada stronger and more militant? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 7, "Unions and industrial relations," pages 256-260. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 7.3 Charlotte Yates, "The internal dynamics of union power: Explaining Canadian autoworkers' militancy in the 1980s." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  union free  management's rights  positive labour relations  concession bargaining  labour-management cooperation  plant sit-downs  militant mobilization strategy  no-concession policy Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 60  militant syndicalist tradition Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe examples of positive labor relations and explain why they are effective. 2. Define concession bargaining and account for its emergence in 1980s. 3. Outline the case in favour of greater union- management cooperation. 4. Explain how unions perceive calls for greater union-management cooperation. 5. Document the reasons for the UAW Canada's no- concessions policy, based on Yates' analysis in her article in Work in Canada. 6. Explain how Yates links this no-concessions policy to the creation of a stronger, more militant union. Practice Exercise Carefully compare the quotes on pages 259 and 260 of the textbook. Using these as your starting point, development your own position on the need for greater union-management cooperation. Unit 8 Unit 8: Critical Perspectives on Work Overview This unit extends our discussion of issues raised in Units 6 and 7. In Unit 6, we reviewed the mainstream literature on organizations and management. Now we adopt the critical "labour process" perspective on the workplace. Essentially this takes the viewpoint of the worker, examining how managerial decisions, organizational structures and technology can poten- tially dehumanize work. The Marxist-inspired labour process perspective rejects questions the workplace status quo, as presented in the literature discussed in Unit 6. The critical alternative it offers chal- Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 61 lenges the motives of management and the underlying organizational principles of efficiency and produc- tivity. This Unit examines the workplace as a "contested terrain", in which managers continually search for new strategies for controlling workers, sometimes by deskilling tasks or using technology to regulate work. The Unit investigates the highly contentious area of occupational health and safety. Crucial to a labour process perspective is how workers respond to managerial authority. Also of interest is how managers and workers are constrained in their actions by technology and organizational structure. The Unit therefore takes a close look at the basis for worker resistance, as well as the grounds for cooperation and compliance. Picking up on some Unit 7 themes, we examine strikes and other collective expressions of worker militancy. The Unit ends by considering the prospects for workplace democracy. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: 1. Outline the labour process perspective, and how it differs from the traditional managerial and organizational literature. 2. Assess the debates about changing skill levels, the impact of new technologies, and flexible pro- duction systems. 3. Discuss the struggles for control, and the potential for compromises, in the area of occupa- tional health and safety. 4. Describe the various ways in which workers, both individually and collectively, resist managerial authority. 5. Explain why in some circumstances, workers actively oppose managerial decisions, whereas in other instances they passively accept authority. 6. Describe Canadian strike trends, the main under- lying causes, and their implications for worker militancy and class politics. 7. Evaluate the prospects for creating more human- ized and democratic workplaces, as alternatives to present forms of hierarchy and managerial authority. Readings (104 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 62 conflict: critical perspectives on work." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 8.1 James Rinehart, "Improving the quality of working life through job redesign: work human- ization or work rationalization? 8.2 David Robertson and Jeff Wareham, "Techno- logical change and shifting labour requirements." 8.3 Joel Novek, "Peripheralizing core labour markets?: The case of the Canadian meat packing industry." 8.4 Vivienne Walters and Ted Haines, "Workers' use and knowledge of the 'internal responsibil- ity system': limits to participation in occupational health and safety." Section 1: The Labour Process Perspective Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. Who really "controls" the labour process: manag- ers, workers, or both? 2. How does technology, work organization, and job design affect workers' skills and job control? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and conflict: critical perspectives on work," pages 264-273. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 8.1 James Rinehart, "Improving the quality of working life through job redesign: work human- ization or work rationalization? Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  employment relationship Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 63  labour process  management control strategies  frontier of control  responsible autonomy versus direct control  despotic versus hegemonic organization of work  bureaucratic versus simple versus technical con- trol  deskilling versus reskilling  social construction of skill  tacit skill  flexible specialization  neo-fordism  work humanization or quality of working life (QWL)  work rationalization Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Assess the main strengths and weaknesses of the labour process perspective. 2. Compare and contrast the models of managerial control presented by Friedman, Burawoy, and Edwards on pages 267-269 of the textbook. 3. Outline the key issues that give rise to the deskilling debate. 4. Explain how the concepts of flexible specializa- tion and neo-fordism offer an alternative to labour process theory. 5. Summarize the two major criticisms of quality of working life (QWL) programs made by Rinehart in his article in Work in Canada. 6. Based on Rinehart's article in Work in Canada, identify how and under what conditions workers are most likely to benefit from job redesign. Practice Exercise The two most hotly debate issues in labour process literature are management control and task deskill- ing. Using the relevant theories and concepts in each of these debates, do your own case study to assess the extent of management control and task deskilling in a specific job. The job you select for your case study can either be your own or one you know something about. Section 2: The Impact of Technology on Work Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 64 Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1. What factors account for whether technological change has a positive or negative impact? 2. How does technological change facilitate organi- zational restructuring and management control? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and conflict: critical perspectives on work," pages 273-277. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 8.2 David Robertson and Jeff Wareham, "Techno- logical change and shifting labour requirements." 8.3 Joel Novek, "Peripheralizing core labour markets?: The case of the Canadian meat packing industry." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  robots versus computer numerical control machines versus office automation versus computer-aided design technology  job upgrading versus downgrading  electronic cottage industries  telecomuting  labour process versus flexible specialization versus contingency approaches  employee involvement in the technological change process  technology-induced job losses  impact of automation on productivity  impact of automation on indirect labour  impact of computer integrated systems on employ- ment  barriers to automation  mechanization and the intensification of produc- tion  peripheralization of core labour markets Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 65 Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain why different kinds of technology can have different effects on employment and job con- tent. 2. Summarize the main consequences of office auto- mation on workers. 3. Account for why different theoretical perspective on technological change may lead to different con- clusions about its impact on work. 4. Assess the potentially negative effects of tech- nological change on unions. 5. Document the impact of Northern Telecom's auto- mation strategy on employment and working conditions, as discussed by Robertson and Wareham in Work in Canada. 6. Outline the reasons Novek gives, in his article in Work in Canada, for the negative impact that corporate restructuring within the meat packing industry has had on workers. Practice Exercise To assist you in assessing the impact of techno- logical changes on workers, take a blank page and draw a line down the middle to create two columns. Label the left column "advantages" and the right column "disadvantages". Now review the material in this Unit and extract the major positive and nega- tive effects, noting these points in the appropriate column. When you are finished making these lists, inspect the columns and draw your own conclusions about the impact of technology on workers. Section 3: Critical Perspectives on Workers' Health Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. How has the on-going industrialization process affected workers' health and safety? 2. What kinds of legislation and/or workplace poli- cies are required to achieve a healthy and safe work environment? Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 66 Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and conflict: critical perspectives on work," pages 277-283. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 8.4 Vivienne Walters and Ted Haines, "Workers' use and knowledge of the 'internal responsibil- ity system': limits to participation in occupational health and safety." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  Canadian trends in work-related illness and injury  blaming the victim ideology  Saskatchewan Occupational Health Act  internal responsibility system (IRS)  right to refuse  right to know  wellness programs  joint health and safety committees  Ontario's Occupational Health and Safety Act (Bill 70) Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe the main trends in occupational inju- ries, illness and fatalities in Canada. 2. Document how the organization and control of the labour process can create occupational health and safety problems. 3. Evaluate how legislation and employer policies reflect a "blaming the victim" ideology. 4. Describe the internal responsibility system. 5. Discuss the reasons given by Walters and Haines in their Work in Canada article for the weakness of the internal responsibility system. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 67 6. Outline Walters and Haines explanation, presented in their Work in Canada article, for worker's lack of participation in occupational health and safety. Practice Exercise Having read Walters and Haines's evaluation of the limitations of the internal responsibility system, and the background provided by the textbook on employee participation in workplace health and safety, make recommendations for revising Ontario's Bill 70 so that workers can exercise their rights more effectively. Section 4: Resistance, Compliance, and Conflict Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. Why is it useful to examine the informal side of organizational life? 2. What factors influence whether or not workers engage in collective action? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and conflict: critical perspectives on work," pages 283-296. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  micro focus on informal social relations  informal system of production  manufactured consent and cooperation  official versus unofficial rewards  free-rider problem  exit versus voice methods of expressing discontent  solidarity  organic leaders  union militancy  strike or lockout  unorganized versus organized conflict Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 68  wildcat strikes  strike trends  isolation hypothesis  effort bargaining Study Question When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain the importance of studying the informal side of organizations. 2. Illustrate how informal work practices can con- tribute to management goals. 3. Describe some of the conditions which facilitate collective action among workers. 4. Discuss to what extent strikes are expressions of worker-management conflict. 5. Outline Canadian strike trends and make some international comparisons. 6. Document several sociological explanations for why strikes occur and variations in strike trends. Practice Exercise Briefly describe three examples from your own expe- riences that provide further evidence for the importance of informal work group relations, norms, and practices. Section 5: Class Politics and Industrial Democracy Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What are the implications of strikes for class consciousness and working-class politics? 2. How can the concept of industrial democracy make the control of work more "collective"? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 8, "Power and control, resistance and Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 69 conflict: critical perspectives on work," pages 296-306. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  explosions of consciousness  dual consciousness  worker attitudes towards class inequities  societal versus industrial radicalism  workers' political ideologies in Canada  working class politics  industrial democracy  employee share ownership plan (ESOP)  worker cooperative  Swedish industrial democracy  codetermination  Work Environment Acts in Sweden and Norway  democratic dialogue Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Discuss the relationship between industrial con- flict and union militancy, on one hand, and working class consciousness and political action, on the other. 2. Explain why Canadian workers (including union members) tend not to engage in class-based politics. 3. Assess the different interpretations of recent displays of worker militancy in Canada. 4. Define industrial democracy. 5. Outline some major examples of how the principles of industrial democracy have been applied in North America and Europe. 6. Document the distinctive features of the Swedish and Norwegian approaches to industrial democracy. Practice Exercise Based on what you have read in this Unit, as well as in relevant sections from other Units, draw your own conclusions about the prospects for industrial democracy in Canada. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 70 Unit 9 Unit 9: How Individuals Experience Work Overview This Unit takes an almost exclusively "micro" view- point, attempting to understand the full spectrum of individuals' subjective work experiences. Unit 8 touched on how workers react to their jobs. Now we probe this more deeply, asking about the very mean- ing of work. This takes us into debates about changing work values and whether or not the work ethic is declining. We also consider how individuals may develop different personal orientations to paid work. How common is the view that a job is just a means to get money? Do men and women hold different work orientations? Given the importance of paid employment, as a social value and a means of sur- vival, how do people react to being unemployed? Perhaps one of the most extensively researched top- ics in the sociology of work is job satisfaction. The Unit thus reviews the highlights of this lit- erature, emphasizing sources of variation in job satisfaction, as well as the causes and individual consequences of job satisfaction and dissatisfac- tion. Job content and technology figure prominently in our discussion of the underlying determinants of satisfying work. We also venture into related areas of research, dealing with alienation and job stress. The Unit concludes by considering how the psycho- logical effects of a job have an impact on individuals' lives away from work. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, students should be able to: 1. Discuss the nature of work values and the work ethic. 2. Assess arguments about instrumental work orien- tations. 3. Describe the reasons for possible changes in work orientations in Canada. 4. Analyze the impact of unemployment on individu- als. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 71 5. Explain the key findings from job satisfaction research, especially the causes and consequences of job satisfaction and what accounts for variations in it. 6. Document the impact of technology on job quality and job satisfaction. 7. Outline how alienating and stressful working conditions affect individual worker's well-being. Readings (104 pages) Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 9, "The meaning of work." Chapter 10, "Job satisfaction and the quality of work." Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.1 Rona Maynard, "How do you like your job?" 9.2 James W. Rinehart, "Contradictions of work-related attitudes and behaviour: an inter- pretation." 9.3 Ester Reiter, "Working at a Burger King outlet." 9.4 Judith MacBride-King and H‚lŠn Paris, "Bal- ancing work and family responsibilities." 9.5 Patrick Burman, "Coping with unemployment over time." Note: Upon completion of the Unit 9, students should also read the short Conclusion in Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society (pages 371-376). Section 1: Work Values and Orientations Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What factors account for the major variations in work values and work orientations? 2. What arguments and evidence suggest that workers may be less satisfied than they claim to be? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 72 Chapter 9, "The meaning of work," pages 312-322. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.2 James W. Rinehart, "Contradictions of work-related attitudes and behaviour: an inter- pretation." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanation of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  work values  work orientations  the meaning of work historically  Weber's Protestant work ethic thesis  alienating work  proletarian versus deferential versus privatized workers  instrumental work orientations  Affluent Worker Study  gender differences in work orientations  satisfied versus instrumental reactions to work  job attitudes versus on-the-job behaviour Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain the difference between work values and work orientations. 2. Discuss how work values have changed histori- cally. 3. Describe Weber's thesis about the Protestant work ethic. 4. Outline various arguments, and their supporting evidence, in the debates about instrumental work orientations. 5. Explain how gender may influence work orienta- tions. 6. Outline Rinehart's analysis of the disparities between work attitudes and on-the-job behaviour, as presented in his article in Work in Canada. Practice Exercise Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 73 Review Rinehart's article for its main points, then look for relevant evidence from this Section and earlier Units that bears on his argument about the contradictions between work attitudes and behaviour. On balance, does your assessment of this evidence lead you to the same conclusion, as stated in Rinehart's quote cited above? Section 2: Changing Work Attitudes Thought Question As you read, keep the following question in mind: 1. What changes are occurring in work values and orientations? 2. How can these changes in work values and orien- tations be explained in terms of the labour market, organizational, economic and social factors docu- mented in earlier Units? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 9, "The meaning of work," pages 322-331. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.4 Judith MacBride-King and H‚lŠn Paris, "Bal- ancing work and family responsibilities." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  work ethic  "work ethic problem"  wealth ethic  cultural variations in the work ethic  education and work attitudes  new work-family orientations  work as a central life interest  new work-leisure orientations  life-cycle explanation  problems balancing work and family  family-supportive programs Study Questions Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 74 When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Outline how sociologists define the work ethic. 2. Document the case against a decline of the work ethic in Canada. 3. Explain why the work ethic in Japan is changing. 4. How has education, labour force, and demographic trends affected work attitudes? 5. Document the main impact of work-family conflict on employees and employers. 6. Outline employer responses to work-family con- flict, identifying which policies are likely to be most effective helping employees balance job and family. Practice Exercise Combine the insights from Unit 5 with this Section's discussion of balancing work and family. Based on this, make your own assessment of what kinds of policies are going to help women and men create a healthier balance between work and family responsi- bilities. Section 3: Experiencing Unemployment Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. Why does unemployment have such negative personal consequences? 2. How is a person's self-identity intertwined with her or his job? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 9, "The meaning of work," pages 331-334. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.5 Patrick Burman, "Coping with unemployment Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 75 over time." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  latent versus manifest functions of work  internalization of the problem of unemployment  negative personal effects of unemployment  the unemployed "self"  impact of joblessness on personal identify  stages of coping with unemployment Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Describe the main economic and psychological costs of job loss for individuals. 2. Explain how Johada's distinction between the latent and manifest functions of work helps to explain the negative psychological impact of unem- ployment. 3. Account for why unemployed people tend not to blame "the system" for their plight. 4. Describe the three stages unemployed individuals go through in coping with their joblessness, as suggested in Burman's Work in Canada article. 5. Discuss Burman's argument that "changed social identity following job loss affects personal iden- tity" (Work in Canada, page 389). Practice Exercise Quickly review the reading for this Section and make a list of the main personal consequences of unem- ployment. Following Burman, recognize that some of these effects may depend on the length of unemploy- ment. Now use this check-list, and Burman's concept of phases, to interpret (or reinterpret) sociologi- cally what you have observed an unemployed person going through. Section 4: Sources of Variation in Job Satisfaction Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 76 Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What are the characteristics of a highly satis- fying job, or can such generalizations even be made? 2. How important are workers' job aspirations, expectations, and personal characteristics in accounting for variations in job satisfaction? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 10, "Job satisfaction and the quality of work," pages 338-350. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.1 Rona Maynard, "How do you like your job?" Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  general measures of job satisfaction  behavioural intention measures of job satisfaction  aging effect  cohort effect  life-cycle effect  job effect  gender differences in job satisfaction  structural versus dispositional models  effects of education on job satisfaction  Herzberg's two-factor theory  intrinsic versus extrinsic work rewards  career development and job satisfaction  1989 General Social Survey results  underemployment  job satisfaction-productivity relationship Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain why different measures of job satisfac- tion show varying levels of job satisfaction. 2. Identify specific worker characteristics which Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 77 appear to influence job satisfaction. 3. Discuss the impact job conditions have on job satisfaction. 4. Critically assess the relevance of Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction. 5. Explain how the presence or absence of opportu- nities for career advancement, challenge and growth affect job satisfaction. 6. Document the major sources of employee discon- tent, according to Maynard's Work in Canada article, and explain why she concludes that employers should be concerned about this (page 361). Practice Exercise Draw up a list of what you consider to be the three most satisfying and the three least satisfying jobs. Identify which of the characteristics mentioned in the reading account for your choices. Section 5: Technology and Job Satisfaction Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. In what ways does technology affect job satis- faction? 2. How do worker's job experiences in the fast food industry reflect the technology and work organiza- tion used? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 10, "Job satisfaction and the quality of work," pages 350-356. Lowe and Krahn (eds.), Work in Canada: Readings in the Sociology of Work and Industry: 9.3 Ester Reiter, "Working at a Burger King outlet." Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 78 reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following.  Blauner's thesis  impact of computers and automation on job quality  impact of office automation on job satisfaction  impact of automated production systems on job content and skill  technological determinism  relationship between job satisfaction and produc- tivity  machine tending  speed of service (SOS)  profile of fast-food industry workers  quality, service and cleanliness (QSC) Study Questions When you have completed the assigned readings, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain Blauner's thesis about the relationship between technology and worker satisfaction (or alienation). 2. Summarize the main research findings about the impact of different kinds of technology on job skills. 3. Explain the statement on page 353 of the textbook that "new technologies are not inherently good or bad." 4. Discuss why the relationship between productivity and job satisfaction is not as strong or as direct as is often assumed. 5. Document how the concept of "machine tending" has been applied in the fast food industry, according to Reiter's Work in Canada article. 6. Outline the main findings of Reiter's participant observation research regarding the personal and job content factors which shape workers' experiences in the fast-food industry. Practice Exercise Attempt to integrate the three main themes of this Section: technology, job satisfaction, and produc- tivity by answering this question: What evidence is there in this Section showing how technology's impact on job quality may, in turn, affect both job satisfaction and productivity? You may have to think through the implications of some of the studies reported to generate ideas about these connections. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 79 Section 6: Alienating and Stressful Work Thought Questions As you read, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What are the similarities and differences between the concepts of job satisfaction, alienation, and job stress? 2. Why are job conditions which are skilled, autonomous and challenging necessary for worker well-being? Reading Assignments Krahn and Lowe, Work, Industry and Canadian Society: Chapter 10, "Job satisfaction and the quality of work," pages 356-366. Key Concepts To review key concepts encountered through the reading, prepare your own explanations of each of the following. Sometimes it is useful to compare related terms, as indicated.  alienation  structural versus social-psychological perspec- tives on alienation  alienation and powerlessness  work and well-being  work-related stress  stressors  demand-control model of stress  active versus passive jobs  electronic surveillance  person-environment fit model of stress  compensatory leisure versus spillover hypotheses  occupational self-direction Study Questions When you have completed the assigned reading, test your understanding of the material by answering the following study questions. 1. Explain how Marx's concept of alienation differs from a social-psychological perspective on alien- ation. Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 80 2. Define work-related stress and itemize the major stressors. 3. Outline the kind of working conditions that are the most stressful, according to the demand-control model of stress. 4. Describe the person-environment fit approach to stress, indicating how it differs from the demand- control model. 5. Explain Meissner's argument about the "long arm of the job" (page 356 of the textbook). 6. Discuss the similarities between Kohn's notion of "occupational self-direction" (page 365 of the textbook) and earlier theories of job satisfaction, alienation, and job stress. Practice Exercise Having acquainted yourself with research on work orientations, job satisfaction, alienation, stress, and the impact of work on the overall quality of life, try to identify the working conditions and job characteristics which are the most "healthy". Present a brief "profile" of a healthy job, explaining why you have selected these characteris- tics. Wishing you success on the final exam! Sociology 321 / Phase III Page 81