Augustus

Augustan Settlement

• Imp. Caesar sole leader after defeat of Antony
• Spends 30-28 settling affairs in East
• Permanent settlement in Rome, Jan. 27
  • "Hiding elephant in hotdog bun"
  • Imp. Caesar gives up extraordinary powers, offers to resign
  • Cries of horror from senate (well orchestrated)
  • Old offices revived to "full" operation
    • Promagistrates to govern provinces with no signif. military garrison
  • Caesar becomes "just" a consul
    • Holds the office every year
  • Made proconsul of militarily significant provinces
    • Such provinces governed by senatorial "legates" appointed by Caesar
  • Troops continue to be bound by personal oath of allegiance to Caesar
• In honor of "restoration" of Republic is granted title "Augustus"
  • Vaguely religious ("exalted one")
  • Marks Caesar out as distinctive individual without making the exact nature of this distinction clear
    • Avoids giving offense as Caesar the dictator had done
  • "(Imp.) Caesar Augustus"

Revision in 23 BC

• Electoral chaos in Rome while Augustus in Spain in mid 20s
  • Shows presence of Augustus needed to maintain order
• Augustus gives up annual consulships in 23 BC
  • Nobility thwarted of traditional ambition if Augustus hogs half of positions as consul
• Takes on "tribunician power" ("power of tribunes")
  • Unprecedented
  • renewed at 5-, 10-year intervals
    • granted permanently to successors
  • allows interference in traditional offices of Republic

Other titles

• "Pontifex maximus"
  • Chief priest of state religion
  • Election to office by all of Italy signifies loyalty to Caesar
  • Allows for interference in sacred affairs
  • Distinctive title for successors
• Pater patriae
  • "Father of the Fatherland"
  • Granted in 2 BC
  • Another distinctive title for later emperors
    • Only Tiberius refuses this title

Miiltary/Provincial Organization

• After defeat of Antony, many legions were disbanded
  • Huge numbers of veterans discharged
  • Given land in Italy or settled in colonies abroad
• 28 kept in permanent service
  • 150,000 citizen troops, equal number of non-Roman "auxiliaries"
  • Troops now long-term professionals
    • 20-years' service (varied by branch)
    • Discharge benefits provided by Augustus
      • For long time out of his personal wealth
      • In AD 6, special fund with dedicated taxes set up
  • Under oath of allegiance to Augustus
• Senators command militarily important provinces as Augustus' legates
  • In one-legion provinces, a praetorian-rank legate is in charge of both province and legion
  • In multi-legions provinces, a consular-rank legate is in overall charge of the province, and a praetorian-rank legate commands each individual legion
    • E.g., Upper Germany, Lower Germany, Syria
• Less important military provinces governed by equestrian-rank governor
  • At first called "praefect"
  • Later "procurator"
• Special position for Egypt
  • Augustus rules as "pharaoh"
  • Huge wealth, isolated position thought ideal for rebellion
    • Later experience shows this not true
    • Senators banned from Egypt w/out special permission
  • Equestrian-rank governor rules on behalf of Augustus
    • Only major military province not commanded by legion
• Governors basically controlled military, maintained public order
  • Day-to-day government provided by local municipal governments
  • Governors not involved in legal system except when death penalty involved

New Offices

• New bureaucratic positions filled by Augustus at own discretion
• Senatorial positions in Rome & Italy
  • Long-term appointments to control publicly visible functions
    • Grain distribution
    • Maintenance of buildings, temples, aqueducts, channel of Tiber, roads
    • Praefect of City controls public order in Rome
  • Staffs provided by Augustus from the slaves and freedmen of his household
• Equestrian positions
  • New career pattern unheard of under Republic
  • Control of major "behind the scenes" functions
    • Grain supply of Rome
    • Fire brigades
  • Praetorian guard
    • Special troops under direct control of Augustus
    • Later placed under praefect
    • Gathered in special camp outside Rome in AD 12
    • Guard and their praefects later influential at times of disputed succession
    • Praefect eventually becomes a legal official
      • "Talk to my friend the praefect"
• Fleets
• Praefect of Egypt
• Governors of small provinces
• Junior officers in army
• Procurators looked after extensive properties owned by Augustus in provinces

Senate

• Augustus controls sessions
• Electoral reforms end free elections
  • Ca. AD 5, reform allows special votes for senators, most important equites
  • In AD 14, senate assumes full control of elections
• Augustus comes to "commend" candidates (guarantees election)
• Real power in hands of imperial legates, not the old magistracies
  • Old magistracies mainly important as prereq. for legateships
• Starting in 7 BC suffect consuls regularly elected to provide enough men of consular rank
  • "Ordinary" consuls resign half-way through year
  • Later in 1st. century, number of suffects grows

Strategic Policy

• Central control allows for rationalization of empire
• Major campaigns to "full in the blanks"
  • Senior generals mainly provided from Augustus's household
• Mid 20s, NW Spain subdued
• From 16 BC on, extended campaign to extend control in Balkans to Dalmatia
  • Pannonia, Illyricum, Moesia set up as full provinces
• From 13 BC on, campaigns to subdue Germany across the Rhine
• AD 6-9, Great Pannonian Revolt
  • Severe manpower crisis to find new troops
• AD 9, massive defeat in Germanys
  • Teutoberg Forest
  • Three legions (10% of total) lost
  • No way to make up losses after crisis caused by Pannonian Revolt
• Augustus's advice to successors: don't' expand
  • Imperial military policy is static defense
  • All troops committed to borders
  • No reserves
  • Major campaigning (either defensive or offensive) necessitates taking troops from elsewhere

Principate

• Name for early Empire
  • Adapted from title princeps
  • "Leading man"
  • Based on earlier title
  • Signifies civil supremacy in Rome
  • Used in preference to imperator, which refers to military basis of power
• Emperor stays in Rome
  • Controls system of upper-class control of government, military
  • Figurehead for troops' loyalty
  • Doesn't normally lead troops in field

Dynastic Policy

• Long-term loyalty in antiquity always based on heredity
• Augustus has no "official" position to pass on
• Augustus (and others) promote his household (the domus Augusta) as guarantor of peace
• Still, tries to mark out successor with special honors
• Successor chosen from blood relations (closest male)
• Augustus has no son of own
• Daughter Julia married to various potential heirs
  • Marcellus (son of Augustus's sister Octavia)
  • M. Agrippa
    • Have many ill-fated children
  • Tiberius (son of Augustus's second wife, Livia)
• Augustus adopts grandsons through Agrippa
  • Die, AD 2, 4
• Augustus adopts stepson Tiberius as heir, AD 7
  • Though Tiberius has own son, he adopts Germanicus, his own nephew who was married to Augustus's granddaughter Agrippina
  • Theoretically, three generations after Augustus's death, the successor would be direct descendatnt of Augustus