1. Identify three kinds of generalization of a target behaviour.
2. What are three categories of generalization strategies?
3. Explain nine specific strategies for promoting generalization.
4. Describe how to use a behavioural trap, general case training, and in situ training.
5. List the steps in implementing generalization strategies.
6. What is a booster program, and generalization probes?
How can a behavioural treatment program produce long-term changes in ___________?
(O’Donohue et al., 1992)
- 42-year-old woman who had anxiety disorder (agoraphobia) and panic attacks
- had not gone beyond her ____ in 7.5 years
- consented to treatment
- behavioural treatment program:
• made a list of _________ activities (e.g., spending time with her pets, reading, watching TV, etc.)
• engaged in rewarding activities only when outside her home (e.g., watched TV at a friend’s home)
• amount of time spent outside her home/yard was recorded
- results:
• she increased time spent outside her home; measures of fear and _________ decreased
• she walked to other parts of the street, visited neighbours’ homes, and attended parties
• 2 month- and 18 month-follow-ups showed gains were __________ over time
- definition: behaviour that occurs in the presence of an SD that is similar to that used in training; in other words, behaviour change that exists ______ the training program
- three kinds of generalization
e.g., consider a treatment program that increased in-class math problem worksheet completion using positive reinforcement
• response ___________: extension of behaviour change over time, after the program is no longer in effect
e.g., after reinforcement program is over, in-class math problem worksheet completion is continued over time
• transfer of behaviour across __________ and settings: behaviour change takes place in new/different settings and circumstances
e.g., math homework completion also increased
• response ______________: altering one behaviour leads to similar changes in another, unaddressed response, may be one that is similar or related to the target behaviour
e.g., reduction in classroom disruptions also occurred
Stokes and Baer (1977): reviewed 270 studies on generalization
- categorized techniques for assessing and training generalization
- over 50% of the research relied on “_____ ___ ____” generalization process (i.e., implement behaviour change program and after it’s over, hope for the best)
- proposed multiple ways of developing generalization
- this critically acclaimed article raised interest in the importance of ______________
Stokes and Osnes (1989): proposed three categories of generalization strategies:
1. Exploit _______ contingencies
- natural contingencies include the antecedents and consequences that affect target behaviour
- use contingencies that occur _________ in the environment
e.g., touching a hot stove by accident will affect subsequent behaviour
2. Train _________
- traditionally, training conditions have been tightly controlled, using highly consistent stimuli
- instead, allow __________ in the antecedent stimuli, responses, and consequences employed in the modification procedures
e.g., use multiple trainers, different settings, various reinforcers, etc.
3. Incorporate functional _________
- mediator: a stimulus that occurs between training and generalization, and facilitates or promotes generalization
- may be an SD
e.g., referring to note cards before giving a presentation
• _________ generalization
- provide reinforcement when target behaviour is performed outside of the training situation
• Training skills that contact _______ contingencies of reinforcement
e.g., social speaking that is established in a training session can be maintained by social reinforcement (talking with other people)
- in a behavioural ____, a behaviour that has been developed by programmed reinforcers is “trapped” (i.e., maintained) by natural reinforcers (Baer & Wolf, 1970)
e.g., Alber and Heward (1996):
- Carlos, a fifth-grader struggling with reading and math
- often studied, sorted, and played with ________ cards in class
- the teacher went to confiscate his cards in the middle of a lesson on alphabetization, but she noticed that he had already ____________ all left-handed pitchers in the National League
- Carlos was allowed to use his _____ to calculate averages in math, locate the hometown of players in geography, and wrote letters to his favourite players in language arts
- Carlos made significant academic gains and improved his attitude about school
How to set a behavioural ____:
1. Identify your ____:
With which behaviours does the person need the most help?
Select behaviours that have natural reinforcers, and that lend themselves to frequent practice.
2. Find some powerful ____:
What does the person like?
Observe them or ask them directly.
3. Set the ____:
Place coveted materials in the person’s path.
4. ________ your trap line:
Start small, and gradually progress to more complex behaviour.
Use variety and periodically give your trap a break.
5. ________ your catch:
Assess changes in target behaviour frequently.
Make _____________ or set another trap if ineffective.
• Thin the schedule of reinforcement
- switch from continuous to intermittent schedule
- gradually decrease frequency of reinforcement
• Modify contingencies of reinforcement and punishment in the natural environment
- if _______ contingencies of reinforcement are not available, the trainer can teach others to provide reinforcement to the target person
e.g., train teachers to provide feedback and praise
• Incorporate a wide range of relevant stimulus situations in training (i.e., ______ stimulus control)
- often, a narrow range of SDs are used during training
e.g., a single teacher may deliver reinforcement, or reinforcer is presented in a particular classroom
- subsequently, generalization may not occur if a different SD is introduced
e.g., substitute teacher, or different classroom
• Train with ________ antecedent settings and situations
- include typical features of the generalization setting into training
e.g., scrimmages for athletes, mock auditions for musicians, dress rehearsals for actors
e.g., McDonald’s simulation was used to teach students with multiple disabilities restauranting skills (van den Pol et al., 1981)
- why not just conduct training in the real world?
• may not be _________ (due to time, transportation costs, etc.)
• community-based training may not expose learners to the full range of examples they are likely to encounter (long lines at stores, heavy traffic conditions, etc.)
• training in natural settings may be less _________ (cannot be halted or reset)
• simulated situations may be safer than the real world
- __ ____ training: training occurs in the natural environment after an in situ assessment in which the person does not perform the target behaviour (in in situ assessment, person is unaware that they are being assessed)
e.g., Gatheridge et al. (2004):
- 45 6- and 7-year-olds were taught what to do if they found a gun when no adult was present
- behavioural training program used “Eddie Eagle”_______® Program (National Rifle Association, 1988):
stop, don’t touch, leave the area, tell an adult
- results:
• self-report assessment: 84% correct
• role-play for researcher: 67% correct
• in-situ (children found disabled gun placed in after-school care facility watched by hidden camera): ___ correct
- Eddie Eagle GunSafe® Program ______ to produce generalization, perhaps due to lack of in situ training
• Teach a range of functionally __________ responses (response class)
- each response serves the same function; that is, it leads to the same outcome or consequences
e.g., learner uses a pen, pencil, or crayon to write her name
• Use _______ ____ training (or general case programming): use a range of antecedents as well as a range of responses
(“_______ ____” means the goal or target behaviour that occurs beyond the training situation)
- during training, present a sufficient variety of members of a stimulus class (antecedents) to ensure that the person can perform the task
- and teach learner to apply functionally equivalent responses
e.g., has been used to teach telephone skills, street crossing, using different soap dispensers in handwashing, sorting mail by zip code, and bussing cafeteria tables
e.g., Sprague and Horner (1984):
- 15- to 19-year-old high school students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities
- target behaviour: using a _______ machine
- behavioural training program:
• baseline
• trained with single vending machine
• trained with three similar machines
• _______ ____: trained with three different machines
- results (tested with a novel vending machine):
• performance by those trained in the general case condition was significantly better than all other conditions
• 18-month follow-up revealed that behaviour was maintained
• Incorporate self-generated _________ of generalization
- physical stimulus (e.g., tying a string around your finger)
- verbal and covert stimulus (e.g., self-instruction)
- ____-_________: the act of recording one’s own behaviours can promote generalization
e.g., McLaughlin et al. (1982):
- students aged 10-12 in a special ed class
- target behaviours: completing 14-page assignment in workbook
- behavioural treatment:
• self-recording of studying behaviour (entering a “+” or “-” in squares on a data sheet)
• self-recording + matching (_____ provided if student’s self-recording sheet matched the teacher’s)
- results: studying increased, as did percent _______--even in long-term follow up
1. Identify the ______ stimulus situations for the behaviour
- determine appropriate times/circumstances for the target behaviour before training
2. Identify _______ contingencies of reinforcement for the behaviour
- use natural contingencies to maintain target behaviour
3. Implement appropriate __________ to promote generalization
(see specific strategies above)
- _______ program: additional intervention sessions carried out to restore the original program’s training
e.g., computer-based instruction used to teach 15-year-olds with intellectual disabilities how to perform life skills (making a sandwich, using a microwave); booster sessions helped maintain the skills (Ayres & Cihak, 2010)
4. _______ generalization of behaviour change
- generalization ______: trials that check whether the person performs the behaviour with relevant, natural antecedents/contexts